Articles | Volume 21, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-335-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-335-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| Highlight paper
| 
19 Jan 2024
Research article | Highlight paper |
| 19 Jan 2024
| 19 Jan 2024
High-resolution spatial patterns and drivers of terrestrial ecosystem carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide fluxes in the tundra
Anna-Maria Virkkala
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Woodwell Climate Research Center, Falmouth, 149 Woods Hole Road, MA 02540-1644, USA
Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
Pekka Niittynen
Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
Julia Kemppinen
Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 8000, 90014 Oulu, Finland
Maija E. Marushchak
Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
Carolina Voigt
Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
Geert Hensgens
Department of Earth and Climate, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Johanna Kerttula
Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
Konsta Happonen
Youth Research Society, Kumpulantie 3 A, 00520 Helsinki, Finland
Vilna Tyystjärvi
Finnish Meteorological Institute, Climate System Research Unit, Erik Palménin aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland
Christina Biasi
Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
Department of Ecology, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartstraße 15, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
Jenni Hultman
Natural Resources Institute Finland, Latokartanonkaari 9, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
Janne Rinne
Natural Resources Institute Finland, Latokartanonkaari 9, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
Miska Luoto
Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
Related authors
Anna-Maria Virkkala, Isabel Wargowsky, Judith Vogt, McKenzie A. Kuhn, Simran Madaan, Richard O'Keefe, Tiffany Windholz, Kyle A. Arndt, Brendan M. Rogers, Jennifer D. Watts, Kelcy Kent, Mathias Göckede, David Olefeldt, Gerard Rocher-Ros, Edward A. G. Schuur, David Bastviken, Kristoffer Aalstad, Kelly Aho, Joonatan Ala-Könni, Haley Alcock, Inge Althuizen, Christopher D. Arp, Jun Asanuma, Katrin Attermeyer, Mika Aurela, Sivakiruthika Balathandayuthabani, Alan Barr, Maialen Barret, Ochirbat Batkhishig, Christina Biasi, Mats P. Björkman, Andrew Black, Elena Blanc-Betes, Pascal Bodmer, Julia Boike, Abdullah Bolek, Frédéric Bouchard, Ingeborg Bussmann, Lea Cabrol, Eleonora Canfora, Sean Carey, Karel Castro-Morales, Namyi Chae, Andres Christen, Torben R. Christensen, Casper T. Christiansen, Housen Chu, Graham Clark, Francois Clayer, Patrick Crill, Christopher Cunada, Scott J. Davidson, Joshua F. Dean, Sigrid Dengel, Matteo Detto, Catherine Dieleman, Florent Domine, Egor Dyukarev, Colin Edgar, Bo Elberling, Craig A. Emmerton, Eugenie Euskirchen, Grant Falvo, Thomas Friborg, Michelle Garneau, Mariasilvia Giamberini, Mikhail V. Glagolev, Miquel A. Gonzalez-Meler, Gustaf Granath, Jón Guðmundsson, Konsta Happonen, Yoshinobu Harazono, Lorna Harris, Josh Hashemi, Nicholas Hasson, Janna Heerah, Liam Heffernan, Manuel Helbig, Warren Helgason, Michal Heliasz, Greg Henry, Geert Hensgens, Tetsuya Hiyama, Macall Hock, David Holl, Beth Holmes, Jutta Holst, Thomas Holst, Gabriel Hould-Gosselin, Elyn Humphreys, Jacqueline Hung, Jussi Huotari, Hiroki Ikawa, Danil V. Ilyasov, Mamoru Ishikawa, Go Iwahana, Hiroki Iwata, Marcin Antoni Jackowicz-Korczynski, Joachim Jansen, Järvi Järveoja, Vincent E. J. Jassey, Rasmus Jensen, Katharina Jentzsch, Robert G. Jespersen, Carl-Fredrik Johannesson, Chersity P. Jones, Anders Jonsson, Ji Young Jung, Sari Juutinen, Evan Kane, Jan Karlsson, Sergey Karsanaev, Kuno Kasak, Julia Kelly, Kasha Kempton, Marcus Klaus, George W. Kling, Natacha Kljun, Jacqueline Knutson, Hideki Kobayashi, John Kochendorfer, Kukka-Maaria Kohonen, Pasi Kolari, Mika Korkiakoski, Aino Korrensalo, Pirkko Kortelainen, Egle Koster, Kajar Koster, Ayumi Kotani, Praveena Krishnan, Juliya Kurbatova, Lars Kutzbach, Min Jung Kwon, Ethan D. Kyzivat, Jessica Lagroix, Theodore Langhorst, Elena Lapshina, Tuula Larmola, Klaus S. Larsen, Isabelle Laurion, Justin Ledman, Hanna Lee, A. Joshua Leffler, Lance Lesack, Anders Lindroth, David Lipson, Annalea Lohila, Efrén López-Blanco, Vincent L. St. Louis, Erik Lundin, Misha Luoto, Takashi Machimura, Marta Magnani, Avni Malhotra, Marja Maljanen, Ivan Mammarella, Elisa Männistö, Luca Belelli Marchesini, Phil Marsh, Pertti J. Martkainen, Maija E. Marushchak, Mikhail Mastepanov, Alex Mavrovic, Trofim Maximov, Christina Minions, Marco Montemayor, Tomoaki Morishita, Patrick Murphy, Daniel F. Nadeau, Erin Nicholls, Mats B. Nilsson, Anastasia Niyazova, Jenni Nordén, Koffi Dodji Noumonvi, Hannu Nykanen, Walter Oechel, Anne Ojala, Tomohiro Okadera, Sujan Pal, Alexey V. Panov, Tim Papakyriakou, Dario Papale, Sang-Jong Park, Frans-Jan W. Parmentier, Gilberto Pastorello, Mike Peacock, Matthias Peichl, Roman Petrov, Kyra St. Pierre, Norbert Pirk, Jessica Plein, Vilmantas Preskienis, Anatoly Prokushkin, Jukka Pumpanen, Hilary A. Rains, Niklas Rakos, Aleski Räsänen, Helena Rautakoski, Riika Rinnan, Janne Rinne, Adrian Rocha, Nigel Roulet, Alexandre Roy, Anna Rutgersson, Aleksandr F. Sabrekov, Torsten Sachs, Erik Sahlée, Alejandro Salazar, Henrique Oliveira Sawakuchi, Christopher Schulze, Roger Seco, Armando Sepulveda-Jauregui, Svetlana Serikova, Abbey Serrone, Hanna M. Silvennoinen, Sofie Sjogersten, June Skeeter, Jo Snöälv, Sebastian Sobek, Oliver Sonnentag, Emily H. Stanley, Maria Strack, Lena Strom, Patrick Sullivan, Ryan Sullivan, Anna Sytiuk, Torbern Tagesson, Pierre Taillardat, Julie Talbot, Suzanne E. Tank, Mario Tenuta, Irina Terenteva, Frederic Thalasso, Antoine Thiboult, Halldor Thorgeirsson, Fenix Garcia Tigreros, Margaret Torn, Amy Townsend-Small, Claire Treat, Alain Tremblay, Carlo Trotta, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Merritt Turetsky, Masahito Ueyama, Muhammad Umair, Aki Vähä, Lona van Delden, Maarten van Hardenbroek, Andrej Varlagin, Ruth K. Varner, Elena Veretennikova, Timo Vesala, Tarmo Virtanen, Carolina Voigt, Jorien E. Vonk, Robert Wagner, Katey Walter Anthony, Qinxue Wang, Masataka Watanabe, Hailey Webb, Jeffrey M. Welker, Andreas Westergaard-Nielsen, Sebastian Westermann, Jeffrey R. White, Christian Wille, Scott N. Williamson, Scott Zolkos, Donatella Zona, and Susan M. Natali
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-585, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-585, 2025
Preprint under review for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
This dataset includes monthly measurements of carbon dioxide and methane exchange between land, water, and the atmosphere from over 1,000 sites in Arctic and boreal regions. It combines measurements from a variety of ecosystems, including wetlands, forests, tundra, lakes, and rivers, gathered by over 260 researchers from 1984–2024. This dataset can be used to improve and reduce uncertainty in carbon budgets in order to strengthen our understanding of climate feedbacks in a warming world.
Kseniia Ivanova, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Victor Brovkin, Tobias Stacke, Barbara Widhalm, Annett Bartsch, Carolina Voigt, Oliver Sonnentag, and Mathias Göckede
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3968, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3968, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We measured over 13,000 methane fluxes at a site in the Canadian Arctic and linked them with drone and free satellite images. We tested four machine-learning methods and two map scales. Metre-scale maps captured small wet and dry features that strongly affect methane release, while coarser maps blurred them. Different models shifted the monthly methane estimate. This helps choose the right data and tools to map methane, design monitoring networks, and check climate models.
Nathalie Ylenia Triches, Jan Engel, Abdullah Bolek, Timo Vesala, Maija E. Marushchak, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Martin Heimann, and Mathias Göckede
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 3407–3424, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3407-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3407-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes from a nutrient-poor sub-Arctic peatland. N2O is a potent greenhouse gas; understanding its fluxes is essential for addressing global warming. Using a new instrument and flux chambers, we introduce a system to reliably detect low N2O fluxes and provide recommendations on chamber closure times and flux calculation methods to better quantify N2O fluxes. We encourage researchers to further investigate N2O fluxes in low-nutrient environments.
Judith Vogt, Martijn M. T. A. Pallandt, Luana S. Basso, Abdullah Bolek, Kseniia Ivanova, Mark Schlutow, Gerardo Celis, McKenzie Kuhn, Marguerite Mauritz, Edward A. G. Schuur, Kyle Arndt, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Isabel Wargowsky, and Mathias Göckede
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 2553–2573, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2553-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2553-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present a meta-dataset of greenhouse gas observations in the Arctic and boreal regions, including information on sites where greenhouse gases have been measured using different measurement techniques. We provide a novel repository of metadata to facilitate synthesis efforts for regions undergoing rapid environmental change. The meta-dataset shows where measurements are missing and will be updated as new measurements are published.
Qing Ying, Benjamin Poulter, Jennifer D. Watts, Kyle A. Arndt, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Lori Bruhwiler, Youmi Oh, Brendan M. Rogers, Susan M. Natali, Hilary Sullivan, Amanda Armstrong, Eric J. Ward, Luke D. Schiferl, Clayton D. Elder, Olli Peltola, Annett Bartsch, Ankur R. Desai, Eugénie Euskirchen, Mathias Göckede, Bernhard Lehner, Mats B. Nilsson, Matthias Peichl, Oliver Sonnentag, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Torsten Sachs, Aram Kalhori, Masahito Ueyama, and Zhen Zhang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 2507–2534, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2507-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2507-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present daily methane (CH4) fluxes of northern wetlands at 10 km resolution during 2016–2022 (WetCH4) derived from a novel machine learning framework. We estimated an average annual CH4 emission of 22.8 ± 2.4 Tg CH4 yr−1 (15.7–51.6 Tg CH4 yr−1). Emissions were intensified in 2016, 2020, and 2022, with the largest interannual variation coming from Western Siberia. Continued, all-season tower observations and improved soil moisture products are needed for future improvement of CH4 upscaling.
Valeria Briones, Hélène Genet, Elchin E. Jafarov, Brendan M. Rogers, Jennifer D. Watts, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Annett Bartsch, Benjamin C. Maglio, Joshua Rady, and Susan M. Natali
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-226, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-226, 2025
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
Arctic warming is causing permafrost to thaw, affecting ecosystems and climate. Since land cover, especially vegetation, shapes how permafrost responds, accurate maps are crucial. Using machine learning, we combined existing global and regional datasets to create a hybrid detailed 1-km map of Arctic-Boreal land cover, improving the representation of forests, shrubs, and wetlands across the circumpolar.
Martijn M. T. A. Pallandt, Jitendra Kumar, Marguerite Mauritz, Edward A. G. Schuur, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Gerardo Celis, Forrest M. Hoffman, and Mathias Göckede
Biogeosciences, 19, 559–583, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-559-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-559-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Thawing of Arctic permafrost soils could trigger the release of vast amounts of carbon to the atmosphere, thus enhancing climate change. Our study investigated how well the current network of eddy covariance sites to monitor greenhouse gas exchange at local scales captures pan-Arctic flux patterns. We identified large coverage gaps, e.g., in Siberia, but also demonstrated that a targeted addition of relatively few sites can significantly improve network performance.
Anna-Maria Virkkala, Susan M. Natali, Brendan M. Rogers, Jennifer D. Watts, Kathleen Savage, Sara June Connon, Marguerite Mauritz, Edward A. G. Schuur, Darcy Peter, Christina Minions, Julia Nojeim, Roisin Commane, Craig A. Emmerton, Mathias Goeckede, Manuel Helbig, David Holl, Hiroki Iwata, Hideki Kobayashi, Pasi Kolari, Efrén López-Blanco, Maija E. Marushchak, Mikhail Mastepanov, Lutz Merbold, Frans-Jan W. Parmentier, Matthias Peichl, Torsten Sachs, Oliver Sonnentag, Masahito Ueyama, Carolina Voigt, Mika Aurela, Julia Boike, Gerardo Celis, Namyi Chae, Torben R. Christensen, M. Syndonia Bret-Harte, Sigrid Dengel, Han Dolman, Colin W. Edgar, Bo Elberling, Eugenie Euskirchen, Achim Grelle, Juha Hatakka, Elyn Humphreys, Järvi Järveoja, Ayumi Kotani, Lars Kutzbach, Tuomas Laurila, Annalea Lohila, Ivan Mammarella, Yojiro Matsuura, Gesa Meyer, Mats B. Nilsson, Steven F. Oberbauer, Sang-Jong Park, Roman Petrov, Anatoly S. Prokushkin, Christopher Schulze, Vincent L. St. Louis, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Juha-Pekka Tuovinen, William Quinton, Andrej Varlagin, Donatella Zona, and Viacheslav I. Zyryanov
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 179–208, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-179-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-179-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The effects of climate warming on carbon cycling across the Arctic–boreal zone (ABZ) remain poorly understood due to the relatively limited distribution of ABZ flux sites. Fortunately, this flux network is constantly increasing, but new measurements are published in various platforms, making it challenging to understand the ABZ carbon cycle as a whole. Here, we compiled a new database of Arctic–boreal CO2 fluxes to help facilitate large-scale assessments of the ABZ carbon cycle.
Anna-Maria Virkkala, Isabel Wargowsky, Judith Vogt, McKenzie A. Kuhn, Simran Madaan, Richard O'Keefe, Tiffany Windholz, Kyle A. Arndt, Brendan M. Rogers, Jennifer D. Watts, Kelcy Kent, Mathias Göckede, David Olefeldt, Gerard Rocher-Ros, Edward A. G. Schuur, David Bastviken, Kristoffer Aalstad, Kelly Aho, Joonatan Ala-Könni, Haley Alcock, Inge Althuizen, Christopher D. Arp, Jun Asanuma, Katrin Attermeyer, Mika Aurela, Sivakiruthika Balathandayuthabani, Alan Barr, Maialen Barret, Ochirbat Batkhishig, Christina Biasi, Mats P. Björkman, Andrew Black, Elena Blanc-Betes, Pascal Bodmer, Julia Boike, Abdullah Bolek, Frédéric Bouchard, Ingeborg Bussmann, Lea Cabrol, Eleonora Canfora, Sean Carey, Karel Castro-Morales, Namyi Chae, Andres Christen, Torben R. Christensen, Casper T. Christiansen, Housen Chu, Graham Clark, Francois Clayer, Patrick Crill, Christopher Cunada, Scott J. Davidson, Joshua F. Dean, Sigrid Dengel, Matteo Detto, Catherine Dieleman, Florent Domine, Egor Dyukarev, Colin Edgar, Bo Elberling, Craig A. Emmerton, Eugenie Euskirchen, Grant Falvo, Thomas Friborg, Michelle Garneau, Mariasilvia Giamberini, Mikhail V. Glagolev, Miquel A. Gonzalez-Meler, Gustaf Granath, Jón Guðmundsson, Konsta Happonen, Yoshinobu Harazono, Lorna Harris, Josh Hashemi, Nicholas Hasson, Janna Heerah, Liam Heffernan, Manuel Helbig, Warren Helgason, Michal Heliasz, Greg Henry, Geert Hensgens, Tetsuya Hiyama, Macall Hock, David Holl, Beth Holmes, Jutta Holst, Thomas Holst, Gabriel Hould-Gosselin, Elyn Humphreys, Jacqueline Hung, Jussi Huotari, Hiroki Ikawa, Danil V. Ilyasov, Mamoru Ishikawa, Go Iwahana, Hiroki Iwata, Marcin Antoni Jackowicz-Korczynski, Joachim Jansen, Järvi Järveoja, Vincent E. J. Jassey, Rasmus Jensen, Katharina Jentzsch, Robert G. Jespersen, Carl-Fredrik Johannesson, Chersity P. Jones, Anders Jonsson, Ji Young Jung, Sari Juutinen, Evan Kane, Jan Karlsson, Sergey Karsanaev, Kuno Kasak, Julia Kelly, Kasha Kempton, Marcus Klaus, George W. Kling, Natacha Kljun, Jacqueline Knutson, Hideki Kobayashi, John Kochendorfer, Kukka-Maaria Kohonen, Pasi Kolari, Mika Korkiakoski, Aino Korrensalo, Pirkko Kortelainen, Egle Koster, Kajar Koster, Ayumi Kotani, Praveena Krishnan, Juliya Kurbatova, Lars Kutzbach, Min Jung Kwon, Ethan D. Kyzivat, Jessica Lagroix, Theodore Langhorst, Elena Lapshina, Tuula Larmola, Klaus S. Larsen, Isabelle Laurion, Justin Ledman, Hanna Lee, A. Joshua Leffler, Lance Lesack, Anders Lindroth, David Lipson, Annalea Lohila, Efrén López-Blanco, Vincent L. St. Louis, Erik Lundin, Misha Luoto, Takashi Machimura, Marta Magnani, Avni Malhotra, Marja Maljanen, Ivan Mammarella, Elisa Männistö, Luca Belelli Marchesini, Phil Marsh, Pertti J. Martkainen, Maija E. Marushchak, Mikhail Mastepanov, Alex Mavrovic, Trofim Maximov, Christina Minions, Marco Montemayor, Tomoaki Morishita, Patrick Murphy, Daniel F. Nadeau, Erin Nicholls, Mats B. Nilsson, Anastasia Niyazova, Jenni Nordén, Koffi Dodji Noumonvi, Hannu Nykanen, Walter Oechel, Anne Ojala, Tomohiro Okadera, Sujan Pal, Alexey V. Panov, Tim Papakyriakou, Dario Papale, Sang-Jong Park, Frans-Jan W. Parmentier, Gilberto Pastorello, Mike Peacock, Matthias Peichl, Roman Petrov, Kyra St. Pierre, Norbert Pirk, Jessica Plein, Vilmantas Preskienis, Anatoly Prokushkin, Jukka Pumpanen, Hilary A. Rains, Niklas Rakos, Aleski Räsänen, Helena Rautakoski, Riika Rinnan, Janne Rinne, Adrian Rocha, Nigel Roulet, Alexandre Roy, Anna Rutgersson, Aleksandr F. Sabrekov, Torsten Sachs, Erik Sahlée, Alejandro Salazar, Henrique Oliveira Sawakuchi, Christopher Schulze, Roger Seco, Armando Sepulveda-Jauregui, Svetlana Serikova, Abbey Serrone, Hanna M. Silvennoinen, Sofie Sjogersten, June Skeeter, Jo Snöälv, Sebastian Sobek, Oliver Sonnentag, Emily H. Stanley, Maria Strack, Lena Strom, Patrick Sullivan, Ryan Sullivan, Anna Sytiuk, Torbern Tagesson, Pierre Taillardat, Julie Talbot, Suzanne E. Tank, Mario Tenuta, Irina Terenteva, Frederic Thalasso, Antoine Thiboult, Halldor Thorgeirsson, Fenix Garcia Tigreros, Margaret Torn, Amy Townsend-Small, Claire Treat, Alain Tremblay, Carlo Trotta, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Merritt Turetsky, Masahito Ueyama, Muhammad Umair, Aki Vähä, Lona van Delden, Maarten van Hardenbroek, Andrej Varlagin, Ruth K. Varner, Elena Veretennikova, Timo Vesala, Tarmo Virtanen, Carolina Voigt, Jorien E. Vonk, Robert Wagner, Katey Walter Anthony, Qinxue Wang, Masataka Watanabe, Hailey Webb, Jeffrey M. Welker, Andreas Westergaard-Nielsen, Sebastian Westermann, Jeffrey R. White, Christian Wille, Scott N. Williamson, Scott Zolkos, Donatella Zona, and Susan M. Natali
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-585, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-585, 2025
Preprint under review for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
This dataset includes monthly measurements of carbon dioxide and methane exchange between land, water, and the atmosphere from over 1,000 sites in Arctic and boreal regions. It combines measurements from a variety of ecosystems, including wetlands, forests, tundra, lakes, and rivers, gathered by over 260 researchers from 1984–2024. This dataset can be used to improve and reduce uncertainty in carbon budgets in order to strengthen our understanding of climate feedbacks in a warming world.
Kseniia Ivanova, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Victor Brovkin, Tobias Stacke, Barbara Widhalm, Annett Bartsch, Carolina Voigt, Oliver Sonnentag, and Mathias Göckede
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3968, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3968, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We measured over 13,000 methane fluxes at a site in the Canadian Arctic and linked them with drone and free satellite images. We tested four machine-learning methods and two map scales. Metre-scale maps captured small wet and dry features that strongly affect methane release, while coarser maps blurred them. Different models shifted the monthly methane estimate. This helps choose the right data and tools to map methane, design monitoring networks, and check climate models.
Jalisha Theanutti Kallingal, Marko Scholze, Paul Anthony Miller, Johan Lindström, Janne Rinne, Mika Aurela, Patrik Vestin, and Per Weslien
Biogeosciences, 22, 4061–4086, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-4061-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-4061-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We explored the possibilities of a Bayesian-based data assimilation algorithm to improve the wetland CH4 flux estimates by a dynamic vegetation model. By assimilating CH4 observations from 14 wetland sites, we calibrated model parameters and estimated large-scale annual emissions from northern wetlands. Our findings indicate that this approach leads to more reliable estimates of CH4 dynamics, which will improve our understanding of the climate change feedback from wetland CH4 emissions.
Nathalie Ylenia Triches, Jan Engel, Abdullah Bolek, Timo Vesala, Maija E. Marushchak, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Martin Heimann, and Mathias Göckede
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 3407–3424, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3407-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3407-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes from a nutrient-poor sub-Arctic peatland. N2O is a potent greenhouse gas; understanding its fluxes is essential for addressing global warming. Using a new instrument and flux chambers, we introduce a system to reliably detect low N2O fluxes and provide recommendations on chamber closure times and flux calculation methods to better quantify N2O fluxes. We encourage researchers to further investigate N2O fluxes in low-nutrient environments.
Judith Vogt, Martijn M. T. A. Pallandt, Luana S. Basso, Abdullah Bolek, Kseniia Ivanova, Mark Schlutow, Gerardo Celis, McKenzie Kuhn, Marguerite Mauritz, Edward A. G. Schuur, Kyle Arndt, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Isabel Wargowsky, and Mathias Göckede
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 2553–2573, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2553-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2553-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present a meta-dataset of greenhouse gas observations in the Arctic and boreal regions, including information on sites where greenhouse gases have been measured using different measurement techniques. We provide a novel repository of metadata to facilitate synthesis efforts for regions undergoing rapid environmental change. The meta-dataset shows where measurements are missing and will be updated as new measurements are published.
Qing Ying, Benjamin Poulter, Jennifer D. Watts, Kyle A. Arndt, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Lori Bruhwiler, Youmi Oh, Brendan M. Rogers, Susan M. Natali, Hilary Sullivan, Amanda Armstrong, Eric J. Ward, Luke D. Schiferl, Clayton D. Elder, Olli Peltola, Annett Bartsch, Ankur R. Desai, Eugénie Euskirchen, Mathias Göckede, Bernhard Lehner, Mats B. Nilsson, Matthias Peichl, Oliver Sonnentag, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Torsten Sachs, Aram Kalhori, Masahito Ueyama, and Zhen Zhang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 2507–2534, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2507-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2507-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present daily methane (CH4) fluxes of northern wetlands at 10 km resolution during 2016–2022 (WetCH4) derived from a novel machine learning framework. We estimated an average annual CH4 emission of 22.8 ± 2.4 Tg CH4 yr−1 (15.7–51.6 Tg CH4 yr−1). Emissions were intensified in 2016, 2020, and 2022, with the largest interannual variation coming from Western Siberia. Continued, all-season tower observations and improved soil moisture products are needed for future improvement of CH4 upscaling.
Valeria Briones, Hélène Genet, Elchin E. Jafarov, Brendan M. Rogers, Jennifer D. Watts, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Annett Bartsch, Benjamin C. Maglio, Joshua Rady, and Susan M. Natali
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-226, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-226, 2025
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
Arctic warming is causing permafrost to thaw, affecting ecosystems and climate. Since land cover, especially vegetation, shapes how permafrost responds, accurate maps are crucial. Using machine learning, we combined existing global and regional datasets to create a hybrid detailed 1-km map of Arctic-Boreal land cover, improving the representation of forests, shrubs, and wetlands across the circumpolar.
Emmihenna Jääskeläinen, Miska Luoto, Pauli Putkiranta, Mika Aurela, and Tarmo Virtanen
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2024-390, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2024-390, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for HESS
Short summary
Short summary
The challenge with current satellite-based soil moisture products is their coarse resolution. Therefore, we used machine-learning model to improve spatial resolution of well-known SMAP soil moisture data, by using in situ soil moisture observations and additional soil and vegetation properties. Comparisons against independent data set show that the model estimated soil moisture values have better agreement with in situ observations compared to other SMAP-related soil moisture data.
Vilna Tyystjärvi, Tiina Markkanen, Leif Backman, Maarit Raivonen, Antti Leppänen, Xuefei Li, Paavo Ojanen, Kari Minkkinen, Roosa Hautala, Mikko Peltoniemi, Jani Anttila, Raija Laiho, Annalea Lohila, Raisa Mäkipää, and Tuula Aalto
Biogeosciences, 21, 5745–5771, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5745-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5745-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Drainage of boreal peatlands strongly influences soil methane fluxes, with important implications for climatic impacts. Here we simulate methane fluxes in forestry-drained and restored peatlands during the 21st century. We found that restoration turned peatlands into a source of methane, but the magnitude varied regionally. In forests, changes in the water table level influenced methane fluxes, and in general, the sink was weaker under rotational forestry compared to continuous cover forestry.
Ross Charles Petersen, Thomas Holst, Cheng Wu, Radovan Krejci, Jeremy Chan, Claudia Mohr, and Janne Rinne
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3410, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3410, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ecosystem-scale emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are important for atmospheric chemistry. Here we investigate boreal BVOC fluxes from a forest in central Sweden. BVOC fluxes were measured above-canopy using proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry, while compound-specific monoterpene (MT) fluxes were assessed using a concentration gradient method. We also evaluate the impact of chemical degradation on observed sesquiterpene (SQT) and nighttime MT fluxes.
Katharina Jentzsch, Elisa Männistö, Maija E. Marushchak, Aino Korrensalo, Lona van Delden, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Christian Knoblauch, and Claire C. Treat
Biogeosciences, 21, 3761–3788, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3761-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3761-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
During cold seasons, methane release from northern wetlands is important but often underestimated. We studied a boreal bog to understand methane emissions in spring and fall. At cold temperatures, methane release decreases due to lower production rates, but efficient methane transport through plant structures, decaying plants, and the release of methane stored in the pore water keep emissions ongoing. Understanding these seasonal processes can improve models for methane release in cold climates.
Jalisha T. Kallingal, Johan Lindström, Paul A. Miller, Janne Rinne, Maarit Raivonen, and Marko Scholze
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 2299–2324, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2299-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2299-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
By unlocking the mysteries of CH4 emissions from wetlands, our work improved the accuracy of the LPJ-GUESS vegetation model using Bayesian statistics. Via assimilation of long-term real data from a wetland, we significantly enhanced CH4 emission predictions. This advancement helps us better understand wetland contributions to atmospheric CH4, which are crucial for addressing climate change. Our method offers a promising tool for refining global climate models and guiding conservation efforts
Jalisha Theanutti Kallingal, Marko Scholze, Paul Anthony Miller, Johan Lindström, Janne Rinne, Mika Aurela, Patrik Vestin, and Per Weslien
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-373, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-373, 2024
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Our study employs an Adaptive MCMC algorithm (GRaB-AM) to constrain process parameters in the wetlands emission module of the LPJ-GUESS model, using CH4 EC flux observations from 14 diverse wetlands. We aim to derive a single set of parameters capable of representing the diversity of northern wetlands. By reducing uncertainties in model parameters and improving simulation accuracy, our research contributes to more reliable projections of future wetland CH4 emissions and their climate impact.
Vilna Tyystjärvi, Pekka Niittynen, Julia Kemppinen, Miska Luoto, Tuuli Rissanen, and Juha Aalto
The Cryosphere, 18, 403–423, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-403-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-403-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
At high latitudes, winter ground surface temperatures are strongly controlled by seasonal snow cover and its spatial variation. Here, we measured surface temperatures and snow cover duration in 441 study sites in tundra and boreal regions. Our results show large variations in how much surface temperatures in winter vary depending on the landscape and its impact on snow cover. These results emphasise the importance of understanding microclimates and their drivers under changing winter conditions.
Alex Mavrovic, Oliver Sonnentag, Juha Lemmetyinen, Carolina Voigt, Nick Rutter, Paul Mann, Jean-Daniel Sylvain, and Alexandre Roy
Biogeosciences, 20, 5087–5108, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-5087-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-5087-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present an analysis of soil CO2 emissions in boreal and tundra regions during the non-growing season. We show that when the soil is completely frozen, soil temperature is the main control on CO2 emissions. When the soil is around the freezing point, with a mix of liquid water and ice, the liquid water content is the main control on CO2 emissions. This study highlights that the vegetation–snow–soil interactions must be considered to understand soil CO2 emissions during the non-growing season.
Matti Räsänen, Risto Vesala, Petri Rönnholm, Laura Arppe, Petra Manninen, Markus Jylhä, Jouko Rikkinen, Petri Pellikka, and Janne Rinne
Biogeosciences, 20, 4029–4042, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4029-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4029-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Fungus-growing termites recycle large parts of dead plant material in African savannas and are significant sources of greenhouse gases. We measured CO2 and CH4 fluxes from their mounds and surrounding soils in open and closed habitats. The fluxes scale with mound volume. The results show that emissions from mounds of fungus-growing termites are more stable than those from other termites. The soil fluxes around the mound are affected by the termite colonies at up to 2 m distance from the mound.
Oona Leppiniemi, Olli Karjalainen, Juha Aalto, Miska Luoto, and Jan Hjort
The Cryosphere, 17, 3157–3176, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3157-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3157-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
For the first time, suitable environments for palsas and peat plateaus were modeled for the whole Northern Hemisphere. The hotspots of occurrences were in northern Europe, western Siberia, and subarctic Canada. Climate change was predicted to cause almost complete loss of the studied landforms by the late century. Our predictions filled knowledge gaps in the distribution of the landforms, and they can be utilized in estimation of the pace and impacts of the climate change over northern regions.
Ross Petersen, Thomas Holst, Meelis Mölder, Natascha Kljun, and Janne Rinne
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 7839–7858, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7839-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7839-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate variability in the vertical distribution of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in boreal forest, determined through multiyear measurements at several heights in a boreal forest in Sweden. VOC source/sink seasonality in canopy was explored using these vertical profiles and with measurements from a collection of sonic anemometers on the station flux tower. Our results show seasonality in the source/sink distribution for several VOCs, such as monoterpenes and water-soluble compounds.
Matti Räsänen, Mika Aurela, Ville Vakkari, Johan P. Beukes, Juha-Pekka Tuovinen, Pieter G. Van Zyl, Miroslav Josipovic, Stefan J. Siebert, Tuomas Laurila, Markku Kulmala, Lauri Laakso, Janne Rinne, Ram Oren, and Gabriel Katul
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 5773–5791, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-5773-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-5773-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The productivity of semiarid grazed grasslands is linked to the variation in rainfall and transpiration. By combining carbon dioxide and water flux measurements, we show that the annual transpiration is nearly constant during wet years while grasses react quickly to dry spells and drought, which reduce transpiration. The planning of annual grazing strategies could consider the early-season rainfall frequency that was linked to the portion of annual transpiration.
Malika Menoud, Carina van der Veen, Dave Lowry, Julianne M. Fernandez, Semra Bakkaloglu, James L. France, Rebecca E. Fisher, Hossein Maazallahi, Mila Stanisavljević, Jarosław Nęcki, Katarina Vinkovic, Patryk Łakomiec, Janne Rinne, Piotr Korbeń, Martina Schmidt, Sara Defratyka, Camille Yver-Kwok, Truls Andersen, Huilin Chen, and Thomas Röckmann
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 4365–4386, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4365-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4365-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Emission sources of methane (CH4) can be distinguished with measurements of CH4 stable isotopes. We present new measurements of isotope signatures of various CH4 sources in Europe, mainly anthropogenic, sampled from 2017 to 2020. The present database also contains the most recent update of the global signature dataset from the literature. The dataset improves CH4 source attribution and the understanding of the global CH4 budget.
Janne Rinne, Patryk Łakomiec, Patrik Vestin, Joel D. White, Per Weslien, Julia Kelly, Natascha Kljun, Lena Ström, and Leif Klemedtsson
Biogeosciences, 19, 4331–4349, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4331-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4331-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The study uses the stable isotope 13C of carbon in methane to investigate the origins of spatial and temporal variation in methane emitted by a temperate wetland ecosystem. The results indicate that methane production is more important for spatial variation than methane consumption by micro-organisms. Temporal variation on a seasonal timescale is most likely affected by more than one driver simultaneously.
Olli Karjalainen, Juha Aalto, Mikhail Z. Kanevskiy, Miska Luoto, and Jan Hjort
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2022-144, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2022-144, 2022
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
The amount of underground ice in the Arctic permafrost has a central role when assessing climate change-induced changes to natural conditions and human activity in the Arctic. Here, we present compilations of field-verified ground ice observations and high-resolution estimates of Northern Hemisphere ground ice content. The data highlight the variability of ground ice contents across the Arctic and provide called-for information to be used in modelling and environmental assessment studies.
Jenie Gil, Maija E. Marushchak, Tobias Rütting, Elizabeth M. Baggs, Tibisay Pérez, Alexander Novakovskiy, Tatiana Trubnikova, Dmitry Kaverin, Pertti J. Martikainen, and Christina Biasi
Biogeosciences, 19, 2683–2698, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2683-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2683-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
N2O emissions from permafrost soils represent up to 11.6 % of total N2O emissions from natural soils, and their contribution to the global N2O budget will likely increase due to climate change. A better understanding of N2O production from permafrost soil is needed to evaluate the role of arctic ecosystems in the global N2O budget. By studying microbial N2O production processes in N2O hotspots in permafrost peatlands, we identified denitrification as the dominant source of N2O in these surfaces.
Youhua Ran, Xin Li, Guodong Cheng, Jingxin Che, Juha Aalto, Olli Karjalainen, Jan Hjort, Miska Luoto, Huijun Jin, Jaroslav Obu, Masahiro Hori, Qihao Yu, and Xiaoli Chang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 865–884, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-865-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-865-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Datasets including ground temperature, active layer thickness, the probability of permafrost occurrence, and the zonation of hydrothermal condition with a 1 km resolution were released by integrating unprecedentedly large amounts of field data and multisource remote sensing data using multi-statistical\machine-learning models. It updates the understanding of the current thermal state and distribution for permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere.
Martijn M. T. A. Pallandt, Jitendra Kumar, Marguerite Mauritz, Edward A. G. Schuur, Anna-Maria Virkkala, Gerardo Celis, Forrest M. Hoffman, and Mathias Göckede
Biogeosciences, 19, 559–583, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-559-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-559-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Thawing of Arctic permafrost soils could trigger the release of vast amounts of carbon to the atmosphere, thus enhancing climate change. Our study investigated how well the current network of eddy covariance sites to monitor greenhouse gas exchange at local scales captures pan-Arctic flux patterns. We identified large coverage gaps, e.g., in Siberia, but also demonstrated that a targeted addition of relatively few sites can significantly improve network performance.
Anna-Maria Virkkala, Susan M. Natali, Brendan M. Rogers, Jennifer D. Watts, Kathleen Savage, Sara June Connon, Marguerite Mauritz, Edward A. G. Schuur, Darcy Peter, Christina Minions, Julia Nojeim, Roisin Commane, Craig A. Emmerton, Mathias Goeckede, Manuel Helbig, David Holl, Hiroki Iwata, Hideki Kobayashi, Pasi Kolari, Efrén López-Blanco, Maija E. Marushchak, Mikhail Mastepanov, Lutz Merbold, Frans-Jan W. Parmentier, Matthias Peichl, Torsten Sachs, Oliver Sonnentag, Masahito Ueyama, Carolina Voigt, Mika Aurela, Julia Boike, Gerardo Celis, Namyi Chae, Torben R. Christensen, M. Syndonia Bret-Harte, Sigrid Dengel, Han Dolman, Colin W. Edgar, Bo Elberling, Eugenie Euskirchen, Achim Grelle, Juha Hatakka, Elyn Humphreys, Järvi Järveoja, Ayumi Kotani, Lars Kutzbach, Tuomas Laurila, Annalea Lohila, Ivan Mammarella, Yojiro Matsuura, Gesa Meyer, Mats B. Nilsson, Steven F. Oberbauer, Sang-Jong Park, Roman Petrov, Anatoly S. Prokushkin, Christopher Schulze, Vincent L. St. Louis, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Juha-Pekka Tuovinen, William Quinton, Andrej Varlagin, Donatella Zona, and Viacheslav I. Zyryanov
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 179–208, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-179-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-179-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The effects of climate warming on carbon cycling across the Arctic–boreal zone (ABZ) remain poorly understood due to the relatively limited distribution of ABZ flux sites. Fortunately, this flux network is constantly increasing, but new measurements are published in various platforms, making it challenging to understand the ABZ carbon cycle as a whole. Here, we compiled a new database of Arctic–boreal CO2 fluxes to help facilitate large-scale assessments of the ABZ carbon cycle.
Joel Dawson White, Lena Ström, Veiko Lehsten, Janne Rinne, and Dag Ahrén
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2021-353, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2021-353, 2022
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
Microbes that produce CH4 play an important role to climate. Microbes which emit CH4 from wetlands is poorly understood. We observed that microbial community was of importance in explaining CH4 emission. We found, that microbes that produce CH4 hold the ability to produce and consume CH4 in multiple ways. This is important in terms of future climate scenarios, where wetlands are expected to shift. Therefore, we expect the community to be highly adaptive to future climate scenarios.
Patryk Łakomiec, Jutta Holst, Thomas Friborg, Patrick Crill, Niklas Rakos, Natascha Kljun, Per-Ola Olsson, Lars Eklundh, Andreas Persson, and Janne Rinne
Biogeosciences, 18, 5811–5830, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-5811-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-5811-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Methane emission from the subarctic mire with heterogeneous permafrost status was measured for the years 2014–2016. Lower methane emission was measured from the palsa mire sector while the thawing wet sector emitted more. Both sectors have a similar annual pattern with a gentle rise during spring and a decrease during autumn. The highest emission was observed in the late summer. Winter emissions were positive during the measurement period and have a significant impact on the annual budgets.
Roger Seco, Thomas Holst, Mikkel Sillesen Matzen, Andreas Westergaard-Nielsen, Tao Li, Tihomir Simin, Joachim Jansen, Patrick Crill, Thomas Friborg, Janne Rinne, and Riikka Rinnan
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 13399–13416, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-13399-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-13399-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Northern ecosystems exchange climate-relevant trace gases with the atmosphere, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). We measured VOC fluxes from a subarctic permafrost-free fen and its adjacent lake in northern Sweden. The graminoid-dominated fen emitted mainly isoprene during the peak of the growing season, with a pronounced response to increasing temperatures stronger than assumed by biogenic emission models. The lake was a sink of acetone and acetaldehyde during both periods measured.
Cited articles
Baldocchi, D., Chu, H., and Reichstein, M.: Inter-annual variability of net and gross ecosystem carbon fluxes: A review, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 249, 520–533, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2017.05.015, 2018.
Belshe, E. F., Schuur, E. A. G., and Bolker, B. M.: Tundra ecosystems observed to be CO2 sources due to differential amplification of the carbon cycle, Ecol. Lett., 16, 1307–1315, https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12164, 2013.
Berner, L. T., Jantz, P., Tape, K. D., and Goetz, S. J.: Tundra plant above-ground biomass and shrub dominance mapped across the North Slope of Alaska, Environ. Res. Lett., 13, 035002, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaaa9a, 2018.
Bodesheim, P., Jung, M., Gans, F., Mahecha, M. D., and Reichstein, M.: Upscaled diurnal cycles of land–atmosphere fluxes: a new global half-hourly data product, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 1327–1365, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-1327-2018, 2018.
Bradley-Cook, J. I. and Virginia, R. A.: Landscape variation in soil carbon stocks and respiration in an Arctic tundra ecosystem, west Greenland, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 50, S100024, https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2017.1420283, 2018.
Breiman, L.: Random Forests, Mach. Learn., 45, 5–32, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324, 2001.
Bridgham, S. D., Cadillo-Quiroz, H., Keller, J. K., and Zhuang, Q.: Methane emissions from wetlands: biogeochemical, microbial, and modeling perspectives from local to global scales, Glob. Change Biol., 19, 1325–1346, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12131, 2013.
Bruhwiler, L., Parmentier, F.-J. W., Crill, P., Leonard, M., and Palmer, P. I.: The Arctic Carbon Cycle and Its Response to Changing Climate, Current Climate Change Reports, 7, 14–34, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-020-00169-5, 2021.
Brummell, M. E., Farrell, R. E., and Siciliano, S. D.: Greenhouse gas soil production and surface fluxes at a high arctic polar oasis, Soil Biol. Biochem., 52, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.03.019, 2012.
Butterbach-Bahl, K., Baggs, E. M., Dannenmann, M., Kiese, R., and Zechmeister-Boltenstern, S.: Nitrous oxide emissions from soils: how well do we understand the processes and their controls?, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B, 368, 20130122, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0122, 2013.
Cahoon, S. M. P., Sullivan, P. F., Shaver, G. R., Welker, J. M., Post, E., and Holyoak, M.: Interactions among shrub cover and the soil microclimate may determine future Arctic carbon budgets, Ecol. Lett., 15, 1415–1422, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01865.x, 2012a.
Cahoon, S. M. P., Sullivan, P. F., Post, E., and Welker, J. M.: Large herbivores limit CO2 uptake and suppress carbon cycle responses to warming in West Greenland, Glob. Change Biol., 18, 469–479, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02528.x, 2012b.
Cahoon, S. M. P., Sullivan, P. F., and Post, E.: Greater Abundance of Betula nana and Early Onset of the Growing Season Increase Ecosystem CO2 Uptake in West Greenland, Ecosystems, 19, 1149–1163, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-9997-7, 2016.
Celis, G., Mauritz, M., Bracho, R., Salmon, V. G., Webb, E. E., Hutchings, J., Natali, S. M., Schädel, C., Crummer, K. G., and Schuur, E. A. G.: Tundra is a consistent source of CO2 at a site with progressive permafrost thaw during 6 years of chamber and eddy covariance measurements, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 122, 1471–1485, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jg003671, 2017.
Christensen, T. R., Prentice, I. C., Kaplan, J., Haxeltine, A., and Sitch, S.: Methane flux from northern wetlands and tundra. An ecosystem source modelling approach, Tellus B, 48, 652–661, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.1996.t01-4-00004.x, 1996.
Christiansen, J. R., Romero, A. J. B., Jørgensen, N. O. G., Glaring, M. A., Jørgensen, C. J., Berg, L. K., and Elberling, B.: Methane fluxes and the functional groups of methanotrophs and methanogens in a young Arctic landscape on Disko Island, West Greenland, Biogeochemistry, 122, 15–33, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-014-0026-7, 2015.
Commane, R., Lindaas, J., Benmergui, J., Luus, K. A., Chang, R. Y.-W., Daube, B. C., Euskirchen, E. S., Henderson, J. M., Karion, A., Miller, J. B., Miller, S. M., Parazoo, N. C., Randerson, J. T., Sweeney, C., Tans, P., Thoning, K., Veraverbeke, S., Miller, C. E., and Wofsy, S. C.: Carbon dioxide sources from Alaska driven by increasing early winter respiration from Arctic tundra, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 114, 5361–5366, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618567114, 2017.
Dagg, J. and Lafleur, P.: Vegetation Community, Foliar Nitrogen, and Temperature Effects on Tundra CO2 Exchange across a Soil Moisture Gradient, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 43, 189–197, https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-43.2.189, 2011.
Damgaard, C.: A Critique of the Space-for-Time Substitution Practice in Community Ecology, Trends Ecol. Evol., 34, 416–421, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.01.013, 2019.
Davidson, S. J., Santos, M. J., Sloan, V. L., Reuss-Schmidt, K., Phoenix, G. K., Oechel, W. C., and Zona, D.: Upscaling CH4 Fluxes Using High-Resolution Imagery in Arctic Tundra Ecosystems, Remote Sensing, 9, 1227, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9121227, 2017.
Dinerstein, E., Olson, D., Joshi, A., Vynne, C., Burgess, N. D., Wikramanayake, E., Hahn, N., Palminteri, S., Hedao, P., Noss, R., Hansen, M., Locke, H., Ellis, E. C., Jones, B., Barber, C. V., Hayes, R., Kormos, C., Martin, V., Crist, E., Sechrest, W., Price, L., Baillie, J. E. M., Weeden, D., Suckling, K., Davis, C., Sizer, N., Moore, R., Thau, D., Birch, T., Potapov, P., Turubanova, S., Tyukavina, A., de Souza, N., Pintea, L., Brito, J. C., Llewellyn, O. A., Miller, A. G., Patzelt, A., Ghazanfar, S. A., Timberlake, J., Klöser, H., Shennan-Farpón, Y., Kindt, R., Lillesø, J.-P. B., van Breugel, P., Graudal, L., Voge, M., Al-Shammari, K. F., and Saleem, M.: An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm, Bioscience, 67, 534–545, https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix014, 2017.
Dinsmore, K. J., Drewer, J., Levy, P. E., George, C., Lohila, A., Aurela, M., and Skiba, U. M.: Growing season CH4 and N2O fluxes from a subarctic landscape in northern Finland; from chamber to landscape scale, Biogeosciences, 14, 799–815, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-799-2017, 2017.
Emmerton, C. A., St. Louis, V. L., Lehnherr, I., Humphreys, E. R., Rydz, E., and Kosolofski, H. R.: The net exchange of methane with high Arctic landscapes during the summer growing season, Biogeosciences, 11, 3095–3106, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-3095-2014, 2014.
ESRI: ESRI ArcGIS Pro 3.0.3, Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands, CA, 2022.
European Space Agency (ESA): Land Cover CCI Product User Guide Version 2, Tech. Rep., http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf (last access: 7 January 2024), 2017.
Euskirchen, E. S., Bret-Harte, M. S., Scott, G. J., Edgar, C., and Shaver, G. R.: Seasonal patterns of carbon dioxide and water fluxes in three representative tundra ecosystems in northern Alaska, Ecosphere, 3, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1890/es11-00202.1, 2012.
Euskirchen, E. S., Edgar, C. W., Turetsky, M. R., Waldrop, M. P., and Harden, J. W.: Differential response of carbon fluxes to climate in three peatland ecosystems that vary in the presence and stability of permafrost, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 119, 1576–1595, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014jg002683, 2014.
Finnish Meteorological Institute: Daily values for weather observations: Enontekiö Kilpisjärvi Kyläkeskus, https://en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/download-observations (last access: 7 January 2024), 2019a.
Finnish Meteorological Institute: Daily values for weather observations: Enontekiö Kilpisjärvi Saana, https://en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/download-observations (last access: 7 January 2024), 2019b.
Fox, A. M., Huntley, B., Lloyd, C. R., Williams, M., and Baxter, R.: Net ecosystem exchange over heterogeneous Arctic tundra: Scaling between chamber and eddy covariance measurements, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 22, GB2027, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GB003027, 2008.
Frolking, S., Roulet, N., and Fuglestvedt, J.: How northern peatlands influence the Earth's radiative budget: Sustained methane emission versus sustained carbon sequestration, J. Geophys. Res., 111, G01008, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jg000091, 2006.
Greenwell, B. M.: pdp: An R Package for Constructing Partial Dependence Plots, R J., 9, 421–436, https://doi.org/10.32614/RJ-2017-016, 2017.
Greenwell, B. M. and Boehmke, B. C.: Variable Importance Plots – An Introduction to the vip Package, R J., 12, 343–366, https://doi.org/10.32614/rj-2020-013, 2020.
Happonen, K., Virkkala, A.-M., Kemppinen, J., Niittynen, P., and Luoto, M.: Relationships between above-ground plant traits and carbon cycling in tundra plant communities, J. Ecol., 110, 700–716, 2022.
Heiskanen, L., Tuovinen, J.-P., Räsänen, A., Virtanen, T., Juutinen, S., Lohila, A., Penttilä, T., Linkosalmi, M., Mikola, J., Laurila, T., and Aurela, M.: Carbon dioxide and methane exchange of a patterned subarctic fen during two contrasting growing seasons, Biogeosciences, 18, 873–896, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-873-2021, 2021.
Hensgens, G., Laudon, H., Johnson, M. S., and Berggren, M.: The undetected loss of aged carbon from boreal mineral soils, Sci. Rep., 11, 6202, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85506-w, 2021.
Hugelius, G., Strauss, J., Zubrzycki, S., Harden, J. W., Schuur, E. A. G., Ping, C.-L., Schirrmeister, L., Grosse, G., Michaelson, G. J., Koven, C. D., O'Donnell, J. A., Elberling, B., Mishra, U., Camill, P., Yu, Z., Palmtag, J., and Kuhry, P.: Estimated stocks of circumpolar permafrost carbon with quantified uncertainty ranges and identified data gaps, Biogeosciences, 11, 6573–6593, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-6573-2014, 2014.
Hugelius, G., Loisel, J., Chadburn, S., Jackson, R. B., Jones, M., MacDonald, G., Marushchak, M., Olefeldt, D., Packalen, M., Siewert, M. B., Treat, C., Turetsky, M., Voigt, C., and Yu, Z.: Large stocks of peatland carbon and nitrogen are vulnerable to permafrost thaw, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 117, 20438–20446, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916387117, 2020.
IPCC: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S. L., Péan, C., Berger, S., Caud, N., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., Gomis, M. I., Huang, M., Leitzell, K., Lonnoy, E., Matthews, J. B. R., Maycock, T. K., Waterfield, T., Yelekçi, O., Yu, R., and Zhou, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2391 pp., https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896, 2021.
Juncher Jørgensen, C., Lund Johansen, K. M., Westergaard-Nielsen, A., and Elberling, B.: Net regional methane sink in High Arctic soils of northeast Greenland, Nat. Geosci., 8, 20–23, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2305, 2015.
Juutinen, S., Aurela, M., Tuovinen, J.-P., Ivakhov, V., Linkosalmi, M., Räsänen, A., Virtanen, T., Mikola, J., Nyman, J., Vähä, E., Loskutova, M., Makshtas, A., and Laurila, T.: Variation in CO2 and CH4 fluxes among land cover types in heterogeneous Arctic tundra in northeastern Siberia, Biogeosciences, 19, 3151–3167, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3151-2022, 2022.
Kåresdotter, E., Destouni, G., Ghajarnia, N., Hugelius, G., and Kalantari, Z.: Mapping the vulnerability of arctic wetlands to global warming, Earths Future, 9, e2020EF001858, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020ef001858, 2021.
Kelsey, K. C., Leffler, A. J., Beard, K. H., Schmutz, J. A., Choi, R. T., and Welker, J. M.: Interactions among vegetation, climate, and herbivory control greenhouse gas fluxes in a subarctic coastal wetland, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 121, 2960–2975, 2016.
Kemppinen, J., Niittynen, P., Riihimäki, H., and Luoto, M.: Modelling soil moisture in a high-latitude landscape using LiDAR and soil data, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 43, 1019–1031, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4301, 2018.
Kemppinen, J., Niittynen, P., Virkkala, A.-M., Happonen, K., Riihimäki, H., Aalto, J., and Luoto, M.: Dwarf Shrubs Impact Tundra Soils: Drier, Colder, and Less Organic Carbon, Ecosystems, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-020-00589-2, 2021.
King, L. and Seppälä, M.: Permafrost thickness and distribution in Finnish Lapland-Results of geoelectrical soundings, Polarforschung, 57, 127–147, 1987.
Klemedtsson, L., Von Arnold, K., Weslien, P., and Gundersen, P.: Soil CN ratio as a scalar parameter to predict nitrous oxide emissions, Glob. Change Biol., 11, 1142–1147, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.00973.x, 2005.
Kuhn, M. A., Varner, R. K., Bastviken, D., Crill, P., MacIntyre, S., Turetsky, M., Walter Anthony, K., McGuire, A. D., and Olefeldt, D.: BAWLD-CH4: a comprehensive dataset of methane fluxes from boreal and arctic ecosystems, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 5151–5189, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-5151-2021, 2021.
Larmola, T., Tuittila, E.-S., Tiirola, M., Nykänen, H., Martikainen, P. J., Yrjälä, K., Tuomivirta, T., and Fritze, H.: The role of Sphagnum mosses in the methane cycling of a boreal mire, Ecology, 91, 2356–2365, https://doi.org/10.1890/09-1343.1, 2010.
Lau, M. C. Y., Stackhouse, B. T., Layton, A. C., Chauhan, A., Vishnivetskaya, T. A., Chourey, K., Ronholm, J., Mykytczuk, N. C. S., Bennett, P. C., Lamarche-Gagnon, G., Burton, N., Pollard, W. H., Omelon, C. R., Medvigy, D. M., Hettich, R. L., Pfiffner, S. M., Whyte, L. G., and Onstott, T. C.: An active atmospheric methane sink in high Arctic mineral cryosols, ISME J., 9, 1880–1891, https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2015.13, 2015.
Liimatainen, M., Voigt, C., Martikainen, P. J., Hytönen, J., Regina, K., Óskarsson, H., and Maljanen, M.: Factors controlling nitrous oxide emissions from managed northern peat soils with low carbon to nitrogen ratio, Soil Biol. Biochem., 122, 186–195, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.04.006, 2018.
Livingston, G. P. and Hutchingson, G. L.: Enclosure-based measurement of trace gas exchange: applications and sources of error, in: Biogenic trace gases: Measuring emissions from soil and water, edited by: Matson, P. A. and Harriss, R. C., 14–51, Blackwell Science, 1995.
López-Blanco, E., Lund, M., Williams, M., Tamstorf, M. P., Westergaard-Nielsen, A., Exbrayat, J.-F., Hansen, B. U., and Christensen, T. R.: Exchange of CO2 in Arctic tundra: impacts of meteorological variations and biological disturbance, Biogeosciences, 14, 4467–4483, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-4467-2017, 2017.
Lund, M., Lafleur, P. M., Roulet, N. T., Lindroth, A., Christensen, T. R., Aurela, M., Chojnicki, B. H., Flanagan, L. B., Humphreys, E. R., Laurila, T., Oechel, W. C., Olejnik, J., Rinne, J., Schubert, P., and Nilsson, M. B.: Variability in exchange of CO2 across 12 northern peatland and tundra sites, Glob. Change Biol., 16, 2436–2448, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02104.x, 2010.
Ma, W. K., Schautz, A., Fishback, L.-A. E., Bedard-Haughn, A., Farrell, R. E., and Siciliano, S. D.: Assessing the potential of ammonia oxidizing bacteria to produce nitrous oxide in soils of a high arctic lowland ecosystem on Devon Island, Canada, Soil Biol. Biochem., 39, 2001–2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.03.001, 2007.
Magnani, M., Baneschi, I., Giamberini, M., Raco, B., and Provenzale, A.: Microscale drivers of summer CO2 fluxes in the Svalbard High Arctic tundra, Sci. Rep., 12, 763, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-04728-0, 2022.
Marushchak, M. E., Kiepe, I., Biasi, C., Elsakov, V., Friborg, T., Johansson, T., Soegaard, H., Virtanen, T., and Martikainen, P. J.: Carbon dioxide balance of subarctic tundra from plot to regional scales, Biogeosciences, 10, 437–452, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-437-2013, 2013.
Masyagina, O. V. and Menyailo, O. V.: The impact of permafrost on carbon dioxide and methane fluxes in Siberia: A meta-analysis, Environ. Res., 182, 109096, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.109096, 2020.
Mathijssen, P. J. H., Tuovinen, J.-P., Lohila, A., Väliranta, M., and Tuittila, E.-S.: Identifying main uncertainties in estimating past and present radiative forcing of peatlands, Glob. Change Biol., 28, 4069–4084, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16189, 2022.
Mauritz, M., Bracho, R., Celis, G., Hutchings, J., Natali, S. M., Pegoraro, E., Salmon, V. G., Schädel, C., Webb, E. E., and Schuur, E. A. G.: Nonlinear CO2 flux response to 7 years of experimentally induced permafrost thaw, Glob. Change Biol., 23, 3646–3666, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13661, 2017.
McGuire, A. D., Christensen, T. R., Hayes, D., Heroult, A., Euskirchen, E., Kimball, J. S., Koven, C., Lafleur, P., Miller, P. A., Oechel, W., Peylin, P., Williams, M., and Yi, Y.: An assessment of the carbon balance of Arctic tundra: comparisons among observations, process models, and atmospheric inversions, Biogeosciences, 9, 3185–3204, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-3185-2012, 2012.
Myers-Smith, I. H., Forbes, B. C., Wilmking, M., Hallinger, M., Lantz, T., Blok, D., Tape, K. D., Macias-Fauria, M., Sass-Klaassen, U., Lévesque, E., Boudreau, S., Ropars, P., Hermanutz, L., Trant, A., Collier, L. S., Weijers, S., Rozema, J., Rayback, S. A., Schmidt, N. M., Schaepman-Strub, G., Wipf, S., Rixen, C., Ménard, C. B., Venn, S., Goetz, S., Andreu-Hayles, L., Elmendorf, S., Ravolainen, V., Welker, J., Grogan, P., Epstein, H. E., and Hik, D. S.: Shrub expansion in tundra ecosystems: dynamics, impacts and research priorities, Environ. Res. Lett., 6, 045509, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045509, 2011.
Natali, S. M., Watts, J. D., Rogers, B. M., Potter, S., Ludwig, S. M., Selbmann, A.-K., Sullivan, P. F., Abbott, B. W., Arndt, K. A., Birch, L., Björkman, M. P., Bloom, A. A., Celis, G., Christensen, T. R., Christiansen, C. T., Commane, R., Cooper, E. J., Crill, P., Czimczik, C., Davydov, S., Du, J., Egan, J. E., Elberling, B., Euskirchen, E. S., Friborg, T., Genet, H., Göckede, M., Goodrich, J. P., Grogan, P., Helbig, M., Jafarov, E. E., Jastrow, J. D., Kalhori, A. A. M., Kim, Y., Kimball, J. S., Kutzbach, L., Lara, M. J., Larsen, K. S., Lee, B.-Y., Liu, Z., Loranty, M. M., Lund, M., Lupascu, M., Madani, N., Malhotra, A., Matamala, R., McFarland, J., McGuire, A. D., Michelsen, A., Minions, C., Oechel, W. C., Olefeldt, D., Parmentier, F.-J. W., Pirk, N., Poulter, B., Quinton, W., Rezanezhad, F., Risk, D., Sachs, T., Schaefer, K., Schmidt, N. M., Schuur, E. A. G., Semenchuk, P. R., Shaver, G., Sonnentag, O., Starr, G., Treat, C. C., Waldrop, M. P., Wang, Y., Welker, J., Wille, C., Xu, X., Zhang, Z., Zhuang, Q., and Zona, D.: Large loss of CO2 in winter observed across the northern permafrost region, Nat. Clim. Change, 9, 852–857, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0592-8, 2019.
National Land Survey of Finland: Orthophotos, https://www.maanmittauslaitos.fi/en/maps-and-spatial-data/datasets-and-interfaces/product-descriptions/orthophotos, last access: December 2016.
Neubauer, S. C. and Megonigal, J. P.: Moving Beyond Global Warming Potentials to Quantify the Climatic Role of Ecosystems, Ecosystems, 18, 1000–1013, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-015-9879-4, 2015.
Nobrega, S. and Grogan, P.: Landscape and ecosystem-level controls on net carbon dioxide exchange along a natural moisture gradient in Canadian low arctic tundra, Ecosystems, 11, 377–396, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-008-9128-1, 2008.
Olefeldt, D., Hovemyr, M., Kuhn, M. A., Bastviken, D., Bohn, T. J., Connolly, J., Crill, P., Euskirchen, E. S., Finkelstein, S. A., Genet, H., Grosse, G., Harris, L. I., Heffernan, L., Helbig, M., Hugelius, G., Hutchins, R., Juutinen, S., Lara, M. J., Malhotra, A., Manies, K., McGuire, A. D., Natali, S. M., O'Donnell, J. A., Parmentier, F.-J. W., Räsänen, A., Schädel, C., Sonnentag, O., Strack, M., Tank, S. E., Treat, C., Varner, R. K., Virtanen, T., Warren, R. K., and Watts, J. D.: The Boreal–Arctic Wetland and Lake Dataset (BAWLD), Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 5127–5149, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-5127-2021, 2021.
Pallandt, M. M. T. A., Kumar, J., Mauritz, M., Schuur, E. A. G., Virkkala, A.-M., Celis, G., Hoffman, F. M., and Göckede, M.: Representativeness assessment of the pan-Arctic eddy covariance site network and optimized future enhancements, Biogeosciences, 19, 559–583, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-559-2022, 2022.
Parker, T. C., Subke, J.-A., and Wookey, P. A.: Rapid carbon turnover beneath shrub and tree vegetation is associated with low soil carbon stocks at a subarctic treeline, Glob. Change Biol., 21, 2070–2081, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12793, 2015.
Peltola, O., Vesala, T., Gao, Y., Räty, O., Alekseychik, P., Aurela, M., Chojnicki, B., Desai, A. R., Dolman, A. J., Euskirchen, E. S., Friborg, T., Göckede, M., Helbig, M., Humphreys, E., Jackson, R. B., Jocher, G., Joos, F., Klatt, J., Knox, S. H., Kowalska, N., Kutzbach, L., Lienert, S., Lohila, A., Mammarella, I., Nadeau, D. F., Nilsson, M. B., Oechel, W. C., Peichl, M., Pypker, T., Quinton, W., Rinne, J., Sachs, T., Samson, M., Schmid, H. P., Sonnentag, O., Wille, C., Zona, D., and Aalto, T.: Monthly gridded data product of northern wetland methane emissions based on upscaling eddy covariance observations, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 11, 1263–1289, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-11-1263-2019, 2019.
Pessi, I. S., Viitamäki, S., Virkkala, A.-M., Eronen-Rasimus, E., Delmont, T. O., Marushchak, M. E., Luoto, M., and Hultman, J.: In-depth characterization of denitrifier communities across different soil ecosystems in the tundra, Environ. Microbiome, 17, 30, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40793-022-00424-2, 2022.
Räsänen, A., Manninen, T., Korkiakoski, M., Lohila, A., and Virtanen, T.: Predicting catchment-scale methane fluxes with multi-source remote sensing, Landsc. Ecol., 36, 1177–1195, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-021-01194-x, 2021.
Raynolds, M. K., Walker, D. A., Balser, A., Bay, C., Campbell, M., Cherosov, M. M., Daniëls, F. J. A., Eidesen, P. B., Ermokhina, K. A., Frost, G. V., Jedrzejek, B., Jorgenson, M. T., Kennedy, B. E., Kholod, S. S., Lavrinenko, I. A., Lavrinenko, O. V., Magnússon, B., Matveyeva, N. V., Metúsalemsson, S., Nilsen, L., Olthof, I., Pospelov, I. N., Pospelova, E. B., Pouliot, D., Razzhivin, V., Schaepman-Strub, G., Šibík, J., Telyatnikov, M. Y., and Troeva, E.: A raster version of the Circumpolar Arctic Vegetation Map (CAVM), Remote Sens. Environ., 232, 111297, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111297, 2019.
R Core Team: R: A language and environment for statistical computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, https://www.R-project.org/ (last access: December 2020), 2020.
Repo, M. E., Susiluoto, S., Lind, S. E., Jokinen, S., Elsakov, V., Biasi, C., Virtanen, T., and Martikainen, P. J.: Large N2O emissions from cryoturbated peat soil in tundra, Nat. Geosci., 2, 189–192, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo434, 2009.
Rinne, J., Tuittila, E.-S., Peltola, O., Li, X., Raivonen, M., Alekseychik, P., Haapanala, S., Pihlatie, M., Aurela, M., Mammarella, I., and Vesala, T.: Temporal Variation of Ecosystem Scale Methane Emission From a Boreal Fen in Relation to Temperature, Water Table Position, and Carbon Dioxide Fluxes, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 32, 1087–1106, https://doi.org/10.1029/2017GB005747, 2018.
Schlesinger, W. H. and Andrews, J. A.: Soil respiration and the global carbon cycle, Biogeochemistry, 48, 7–20, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006247623877, 2000.
SFS: The determination of dry matter and loss of ignition from water and sediments, Finnish Standardization Office, 2 pp., 1990.
Shaver, G. R., Street, L. E., Rastetter, E. B., Van Wijk, M. T., and Williams, M.: Functional Convergence in Regulation of Net CO2 Flux in Heterogeneous Tundra Landscapes in Alaska and Sweden, J. Ecol., 95, 802–817, 2007.
Siewert, M. B. and Olofsson, J.: Scale-dependency of Arctic ecosystem properties revealed by UAV, Environ. Res. Lett., 15, 094030, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aba20b, 2020.
Sørensen, M. V., Graae, B. J., Classen, A., Enquist, B. J., and Strimbeck, R.: Drivers of C cycling in three arctic-alpine plant communities, Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res., 51, 128–147, https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2019.1592649, 2019.
St Pierre, K. A., Danielsen, B. K., Hermesdorf, L., D'Imperio, L., Iversen, L. L., and Elberling, B.: Drivers of net methane uptake across Greenlandic dry heath tundra landscapes, Soil Biol. Biochem., 138, 107605, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2019.107605, 2019.
Strauss, J., Schirrmeister, L., Grosse, G., Fortier, D., Hugelius, G., Knoblauch, C., Romanovsky, V., Schädel, C., Schneider von Deimling, T., Schuur, E. A. G., Shmelev, D., Ulrich, M., and Veremeeva, A.: Deep Yedoma permafrost: A synthesis of depositional characteristics and carbon vulnerability, Earth-Sci. Rev., 172, 75–86, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.007, 2017.
Takakai, F., Desyatkin, A. R., Lopez, C. M. L., Fedorov, A. N., Desyatkin, R. V., and Hatano, R.: CH4 and N2O emissions from a forest-alas ecosystem in the permafrost taiga forest region, eastern Siberia, Russia, J. Geophys. Res., 113, G02002, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007jg000521, 2008.
Tramontana, G., Jung, M., Schwalm, C. R., Ichii, K., Camps-Valls, G., Ráduly, B., Reichstein, M., Arain, M. A., Cescatti, A., Kiely, G., Merbold, L., Serrano-Ortiz, P., Sickert, S., Wolf, S., and Papale, D.: Predicting carbon dioxide and energy fluxes across global FLUXNET sites with regression algorithms, Biogeosciences, 13, 4291–4313, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-4291-2016, 2016.
Treat, C. C., Anthony Bloom, A., and Marushchak, M. E.: Nongrowing season methane emissions – a significant component of annual emissions across northern ecosystems, Glob. Change Biol., 24, 3331–3343, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14137, 2018a.
Treat, C. C., Bloom, A. A., and Marushchak, M. E.: Nongrowing season methane emissions – a significant component of annual emissions across northern ecosystems, Glob. Change Biol., 24, 3331–3343, 2018b.
Treat, C. C., Marushchak, M. E., Voigt, C., Zhang, Y., Tan, Z., Zhuang, Q., Virtanen, T. A., Räsänen, A., Biasi, C., Hugelius, G., Kaverin, D., Miller, P. A., Stendel, M., Romanovsky, V., Rivkin, F., Martikainen, P. J., and Shurpali, N. J.: Tundra landscape heterogeneity, not interannual variability, controls the decadal regional carbon balance in the Western Russian Arctic, Glob. Change Biol., 24, 5188–5204, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14421, 2018c.
Turetsky, M. R., Kotowska, A., Bubier, J., Dise, N. B., Crill, P., Hornibrook, E. R. C., Minkkinen, K., Moore, T. R., Myers-Smith, I. H., Nykänen, H., Olefeldt, D., Rinne, J., Saarnio, S., Shurpali, N., Tuittila, E.-S., Waddington, J. M., White, J. R., Wickland, K. P., and Wilmking, M.: A synthesis of methane emissions from 71 northern, temperate, and subtropical wetlands, Glob. Change Biol., 20, 2183–2197, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12580, 2014.
Tyystjärvi, V., Kemppinen, J., Luoto, M., Aalto, T., Markkanen, T., Launiainen, S., Kieloaho, A.-J., and Aalto, J.: Modelling spatio-temporal soil moisture dynamics in mountain tundra, Hydrol. Process., 36, e14450, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14450, 2022.
Vainio, E., Peltola, O., Kasurinen, V., Kieloaho, A.-J., Tuittila, E.-S., and Pihlatie, M.: Topography-based statistical modelling reveals high spatial variability and seasonal emission patches in forest floor methane flux, Biogeosciences, 18, 2003–2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2003-2021, 2021.
Virkkala, A.-M., Virtanen, T., Lehtonen, A., Rinne, J., and Luoto, M.: The current state of CO2 flux chamber studies in the Arctic tundra: A review, Prog. Phys. Geogr., 42, 162–184, https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133317745784, 2018.
Virkkala, A.-M., Aalto, J., Rogers, B. M., Tagesson, T., Treat, C. C., Natali, S. M., Watts, J. D., Potter, S., Lehtonen, A., Mauritz, M., Schuur, E. A. G., Kochendorfer, J., Zona, D., Oechel, W., Kobayashi, H., Humphreys, E., Goeckede, M., Iwata, H., Lafleur, P. M., Euskirchen, E. S., Bokhorst, S., Marushchak, M., Martikainen, P. J., Elberling, B., Voigt, C., Biasi, C., Sonnentag, O., Parmentier, F.-J. W., Ueyama, M., Celis, G., St Loius, V. L., Emmerton, C. A., Peichl, M., Chi, J., Järveoja, J., Nilsson, M. B., Oberbauer, S. F., Torn, M. S., Park, S.-J., Dolman, H., Mammarella, I., Chae, N., Poyatos, R., López-Blanco, E., Røjle Christensen, T., Jung Kwon, M., Sachs, T., Holl, D., and Luoto, M.: Statistical upscaling of ecosystem CO2 fluxes across the terrestrial tundra and boreal domain: regional patterns and uncertainties, Glob. Change Biol., 27, 4040–4059, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15659, 2021.
Virkkala, A.-M., Niittynen, P., Kemppinen, J., Marushchak, M.E, Voigt, C., Hensgens, G., Kerttula, J., Happonen, K., Tyystjärvi, V., Biasi, C., Hultman, J., Rinne, J., and Luoto, M.: Data and code for “High-resolution spatial patterns and drivers of terrestrial ecosystem carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide fluxes in the tundra”, Zenodo [code, data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8369550, 2023.
Voigt, C., Marushchak, M. E., Lamprecht, R. E., Jackowicz-Korczyński, M., Lindgren, A., Mastepanov, M., Granlund, L., Christensen, T. R., Tahvanainen, T., Martikainen, P. J., and Biasi, C.: Increased nitrous oxide emissions from Arctic peatlands after permafrost thaw, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 114, 6238–6243, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1702902114, 2017a.
Voigt, C., Lamprecht, R. E., Marushchak, M. E., Lind, S. E., Novakovskiy, A., Aurela, M., Martikainen, P. J., and Biasi, C.: Warming of subarctic tundra increases emissions of all three important greenhouse gases–carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, Glob. Change Biol., 23, 3121–3138, 2017b.
Voigt, C., Marushchak, M. E., Abbott, B. W., Biasi, C., Elberling, B., Siciliano, S. D., Sonnentag, O., Stewart, K. J., Yang, Y., and Martikainen, P. J.: Nitrous oxide emissions from permafrost-affected soils, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 1, 420–434, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0063-9, 2020.
Voigt, C., Virkkala, A.-M., Hould Gosselin, G., Bennett, K. A., Black, T. A., Detto, M., Chevrier-Dion, C., Guggenberger, G., Hashmi, W., Kohl, L., Kou, D., Marquis, C., Marsh, P., Marushchak, M. E., Nesic, Z., Nykänen, H., Saarela, T., Sauheitl, L., Walker, B., Weiss, N., and Sonnentag, O.: Arctic soil methane sink increases with drier conditions and higher ecosystem respiration, Nat. Clim. Change, 13, 1095–1104 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01785-3, 2023.
Vowles, T. and Björk, R. G.: Implications of evergreen shrub expansion in the Arctic, J. Ecol., 107, 650–655, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13081, 2018.
Wagner, I., Hung, J. K. Y., Neil, A., and Scott, N. A.: Net greenhouse gas fluxes from three High Arctic plant communities along a moisture gradient, Arct. Sci., 5, 185–201, https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2018-0018, 2019.
Walker, D. A., Raynolds, M. K., Daniëls, F. J. A., Einarsson, E., Elvebakk, A., Gould, W. A., Katenin, A. E., Kholod, S. S., Markon, C. J., Melnikov, E. S., Moskalenko, N. G., Talbot, S. S., Yurtsev, B. A., and The other members of the CAVM Team: The Circumpolar Arctic vegetation map, J. Veg. Sci., 16, 267–282, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2005.tb02365.x, 2005.
Wild, J., Kopecký, M., Macek, M., Šanda, M., Jankovec, J., and Haase, T.: Climate at ecologically relevant scales: A new temperature and soil moisture logger for long-term microclimate measurement, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 268, 40–47, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2018.12.018, 2019.
Williams, M., Street, L. E., van Wijk, M. T., and Shaver, G. R.: Identifying Differences in Carbon Exchange among Arctic Ecosystem Types, Ecosystems, 9, 288–304, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-005-0146-y, 2006.
Zona, D., Lafleur, P. M., Hufkens, K., Bailey, B., Gioli, B., Burba, G., Goodrich, J. P., Liljedahl, A. K., Euskirchen, E. S., Watts, J. D., Farina, M., Kimball, J. S., Heimann, M., Göckede, M., Pallandt, M., Christensen, T. R., Mastepanov, M., López-Blanco, E., Jackowicz-Korczynski, M., Dolman, A. J., Marchesini, L. B., Commane, R., Wofsy, S. C., Miller, C. E., Lipson, D. A., Hashemi, J., Arndt, K. A., Kutzbach, L., Holl, D., Boike, J., Wille, C., Sachs, T., Kalhori, A., Song, X., Xu, X., Humphreys, E. R., Koven, C. D., Sonnentag, O., Meyer, G., Gosselin, G. H., Marsh, P., and Oechel, W. C.: Earlier snowmelt may lead to late season declines in plant productivity and carbon sequestration in Arctic tundra ecosystems, Sci. Rep., 12, 3986, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07561-1, 2022.
Co-editor-in-chief
Arctic greenhouse gas fluxes are key for climate feedback but the Arctic greenhouse gas balance is poorly constrained due to a limited understanding of the spatial variation in these fluxes. This study combines extensive chamber-based flux measurements and remote sensing data to develop a machine-learning model to predict greenhouse gas fluxes across a tundra landscape in Finland. The analysis revealed that the system was a net greenhouse gas sink and showed widespread CH4 uptake in upland vegetation types, almost surpassing the high wetland CH4 emissions at the landscape scale.
Arctic greenhouse gas fluxes are key for climate feedback but the Arctic greenhouse gas balance...
Short summary
Arctic greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes of CO2, CH4, and N2O are important for climate feedbacks. We combined extensive in situ measurements and remote sensing data to develop machine-learning models to predict GHG fluxes at a 2 m resolution across a tundra landscape. The analysis revealed that the system was a net GHG sink and showed widespread CH4 uptake in upland vegetation types, almost surpassing the high wetland CH4 emissions at the landscape scale.
Arctic greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes of CO2, CH4, and N2O are important for climate feedbacks. We...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint