Articles | Volume 23, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-2119-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-2119-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Estimation of particulate organic carbon export to the ocean from lateral degradations of tropical peatland coasts
Hiroki Kagawa
Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 755-8611, Ube, Japan
Koichi Yamamoto
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 755-8611, Ube, Japan
Sigit Sutikno
Center for Peatland and Disaster Studies (CPDS), Civil Engineering Department, University of Riau, 28131, Pekanbaru, Indonesia
Muhammad Haidar
Geospatial Information Agency of Indonesia, 16911, Cibinong, Indonesia
Noerdin Basir
Bengkalis State Polytechnic, 28712, Bengkalis, Indonesia
Atsushi Koyama
Faculty of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, 889-2155, Miyazaki, Japan
Ariyo Kanno
Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 755-8611, Ube, Japan
Yoshihisa Akamatsu
Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 755-8611, Ube, Japan
Motoyuki Suzuki
Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 755-8611, Ube, Japan
Cited articles
Alexander, R. W., Coxon, P., and Thorn, R. H.: A bog flow at Straduff Townland, county Sligo, Proc. R. Ir. Acad. 86B, 107–119, 1986.
Basir, N., Hiraishi, T., and Jauhari, Z.: The Ability of Red Mangrove, Gray Mangrove, and Mangrove Palm to Reduce Erosion Rate at The Northern Coast of Bengkalis Island Indonesia, Proceedings of the 11th International Applied Business and Engineering Conference, ABEC 2023, 21 September 2023, Bengkalis, Riau, Indonesia, https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.21-9-2023.2342878, 2024.
Baum, A., Rixen, T., and Samiaji, J.: Relevance of peat draining rivers in central Sumatra for the riverine input of dissolved organic carbon into the ocean, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 73, 563–570, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2007.02.012, 2007.
Bjerrum, L.: Progressive failure in slopes of overconsolidated plastic clay and clay shales. ASCE Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, 93, 3–49, 1967.
Bowes, D. R.: A bog-burst in the Isle of Lewis, Scott. Geogr. J. 76, 21–23, 1960.
Boylan, N., Jennings, R., and Long, M.: Peat slope failure in Ireland, Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol., 41, 93–108, https://doi.org/10.1144/1470-9236/06-028, 2008.
Chambers, L. G., Steinmuller, H. E., and Breithaupt, J. L.: Toward a mechanistic understanding of “peat collapse” and its potential contribution to coastal wetland loss, Ecology, 100, https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2720, 2019.
Chevallier, D., Glrondot, M., Péron, C., Martin, J., Bonola, M., Chevalier, J., Thoisy, B. D., Kelle, L., Maho, Y. L., Gardel, A., and Anthony, E. J.: Beach erosion aggravates the drastic decline in marine turtle populations in French Guiana, Regional Environmental Change, 23, 116, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-023-02105-3, 2023.
Couwenberg, J., Dommain, R., and Joosten, H.: Greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical peatlands in south-east Asia, Global Change Biology, 16, 1715–1732, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02016.x, 2010.
Dariah, A., Susanti, E., Mulyani, A., and Agus, F.: Faktor penduga simpanan karbon pada tanah gambut [Probe factors (proxy) of carbon stock in peatland], in: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pengelolaan Lahan Gambut Berkelanjutan (Bogor, 4 May 2012), edited by: Husen, E., Anda, M., Noor, M., Mamat, H. S., Maswar, Fahmi, A., and Sulaeman, Y., Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian, Kementerian Pertanian, Cimanggu (Bogor), 213–221, https://www.scribd.com/document/401524027/Prosiding-Gambut-2012-full-version-pdf (last access: 9 February 2026), 2013.
Dommain, R., Couwenberg, J., and Joosten, H.: Development and carbon sequestration of tropical peat. domes in south-east Asia: links to post-glacial sea-level changes and Holocene climate variability, Quaternary Science Reviews, 30, 999–1010, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.01.018, 2011.
Dykes, A. P. and Jennings, P.: Peat slope failures and other mass movements in western Ireland, August 2008, Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol., 44, 5–16, https://doi.org/10.1144/1470-9236/09-020, 2011.
Dykes, A. P. and Warburton, J.: Mass movements in peat: A formal classification scheme, Geomorphology 86, 73–93, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.08.009, 2007.
Evans, M. and Lindsay, J.: Impact of gully erosion on carbon sequestration in blanket peatlands, Climate Research Clim Res., 45, 31–41, https://doi.org/10.3354/cr00887, 2010.
Evans, M. G. and Warburton, J.: Geomorphology of Upland Peat: Erosion, Form and Landscape Change, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 262 pp., 2007.
Furmanczyk, K. and Dudzińska-Nowak, J.: Effects of extreme storms on coastline changes: a southern Baltic example, J. Coast. Res., 56, 1637–1640, 2009.
Galy, V., Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B., and Eglinton, T.: Global carbon export from the terrestrial biosphere controlled by erosion, Nature, 521, 204–207, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14400, 2015.
Greifswald Mire Centre: Global Peatland Database, https://greifswaldmoor.de/global-peatland-database-en.html (last access: 8 February 2026), 2024.
Hilton, R. G., Galy, V., Gaillardet, J., Dellinger, M., Bryant, C., O'Regan M., Gröcke, D. R., Coxall, H., Bouchez, J., and Calmels, D.: Erosion of organic carbon in the Arctic as a geological carbon dioxide sink, Nature, 524, 84–87, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14653, 2015.
Hirano, T., Segah, H., Harada, T., Limin, S., June, T., Hirata, R., and Osaki, M.: Carbon dioxide balance of a tropical swamp forest in Kalimantan, Indonesia, Global Change Biology, 13, 412–425, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01301.x, 2007.
Hirano, T., Segah, H., Kusin, K., Limin, S., Takahashi, H., and Osaki, M.: Effects of disturbances on the carbon balance in tropical peat swamp forests, Global Change Biology, 18, 3410–3422, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02793.x, 2012.
Hirano, T., Kusin, K., Limin, S., and Osaki, M.: Carbon dioxide emissions through oxidative peat decomposition on burnt tropical peatland, Global Change Biology, 20, 555–565, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12296, 2014.
Hooijer, A., Page, S., Canadell, J. G., Silvius, M., Kwadijk, J., Wösten, H., and Jauhiainen, J.: Current and future CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in Southeast Asia, Biogeosciences, 7, 1505–1514, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-1505-2010, 2010.
Kagawa, H., Yamamoto, K., Haidar, M., Kanno, A., Akamatsu, Y., Suzuki, M., Sutikno, S., Basir, N., and Sekine, M.: Present condition of coastal erosion in the Islands in Riau Province, Indonesia, in: Proceedings of the Civil Engineering Society G (Environment) (Collection of Research Papers on Environmental Engineering), 73, III_213–III_219, https://doi.org/10.2208/jscejer.73.III_213, 2017.
Kagawa, H., Yamamoto, K.. Sutikno, S., Haidar, M., Noerdin, B., Yoshihisa, A., Kanno, A., Suzuki, M., and Koyama, A.: Dataset for: Estimation of particulate organic carbon export to the ocean from lateral degradations of tropical peatland coasts, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19159833, 2026.
Kleinen, T., Brovkin, V., von Bloh, W., Archer, D., and Munhoven, G.: Holocene carbon cycle dynamics, Geophysical Research Letters, 37, L02705, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL041391, 2010.
Koyama, A., Yamamoto, K., Sutikno, S., Basir, N., and Suzuki, M.: Investigation of Peat Landslide in Indonesia Bengkalis Island by Sounding Test, in: Proceedings of 53rd Geotechnical Engineering Research Meeting (Takamatsu City), https://gbank.gsj.jp/ld/resource/geolis/201970507 (last access: 8 February 2026), 2018.
Lantuit, H. and Pollard, W. H.: Fifty years of coastal erosion and retrogressive thaw slump activity on Herschel Island, southern Beaufort Sea, Yukon Territory, Canada, Geomorphology 95, 84–102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.07.040, 2008.
Lantuit, H., Atkinson, D., Overduin, P. P., Grigoriev, M., Rachold, V., Grosse, G., and Hubberten, H. W.: Coastal erosion dynamics on the permafrost-dominated Bykovsky Peninsula, north Siberia, 1951–2006, Polar Research, 30, 7341, https://doi.org/10.3402/polar.v30i0.7341, 2011.
Lehfeldt, R. and Milbradt, P.: Longshore sediment transport modelling in 1 and 2 dimensions, in: advances in Hydro-science and engineering, in: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Hydro-Science and Engineering Abstract (Seoul), https://smileconsult.de/web/files/paper.pdf (last access: 25 March 2026), 2000.
Ludwig, W., Probst, J. L., and Kempe, S.: Predicting the oceanic input of organic carbon by continental erosion, Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 10, 23–41, https://doi.org/10.1029/95GB02925, 1996.
Malpica-Piñeros, C., Barthelmes, A., and Joosten, H.: What, when and how? A review of peatland research in Amazonia, Mires and Peat, 31, 03, https://doi.org/10.19189/MaP.2023.OMB.Sc.2115055, 2024.
Mandanici, E. and Bitelli, G.: Preliminary Comparison of Sentinel-2 and Landsat 8 Imagery for a Combined Use, Remote Sens., 8, 1014, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8121014, 2016.
Matsuo, H., Yamamoto, K., Imai, T., Nakamura, S., Kagawa, H., Sigit, S., Ahmad, M., Muhamad, Y., and Hendra, S.: Flotation of Peat Particles by Dissolved Organic Matter Eluted from the Re-Deposited Tropical Peat in Tropical Peatland Coast. Journal of Water and Environment Technology, 23, 167–178, https://doi.org/10.2965/jwet.24-085, 2025.
McCahon, C. P., Carling, P. A., and Pascoe, D.: Chemical and ecological effects of a Pennine peat-slide, Environ. Pollut., 45, 275–289, https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(87)90102-3, 1987.
Ministry of the Environment: White Paper, Introduction, Section 1, Subsection 2: Global Environment, https://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/h14/index.html (last access: 9 February 2026), 2002.
Nabilah, D. H., Wibowo, A. A., and Wardan, K. S.: Detection of Peatland Coastline Changes Due to Land Use Change On Bengkalis Island, Riau, Indonesia, in: Proceedings of 5th International Conference of Geography and Disaster Management 2023, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1357/1/012042, 2024.
Nicholls, R. J. and Cazenave, A.: Sea-level rise and its impact on coastal zones, Science, 328, 1517–1520, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1185782, 2010.
Osaki, M. and Tsuji, N.: Tropical peatland ecosystems, Springer Tokyo, 633 pp., 2016.
Page, S. E., Siegert, F., Rieley, J. O., Boehm, H. D. V., Jaya, A., and Limin, S.: The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997, Nature, 420, 61–65, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01131, 2002.
Page, S. E., Rieley, J. O., and Banks, C. J.: Global and regional importance of the tropical peatland carbon pool, Global Change Biology, 17, 798–818, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02279.x, 2011.
Pawson, R. R., Lord, D. R., Evans, M. G., and Allott, T. E. H.: Fluvial organic carbon flux from an eroding peatland catchment, southern Pennines, UK, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 625–634, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-12-625-2008, 2008.
Pawson, R. R., Evans, M. G., and Allott, T. E. H.: Fluvial carbon flux from headwater peatland streams: Significance of particulate carbon flux, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 37, 1203–1212, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3257, 2012.
Rachold, V., Brown, J., and Solomon, S. (Eds).: Arctic Coastal Dynamics-Report of an International Workshop, Reports on Polar and Marine Research, 413, 103, https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/26592/1/BerPolarforsch2002413.pdf (last access: 9 February 2026), 2002.
Ribeiro, K., Pacheco, F. S., Ferreira, J. W., de Sousa-Neto, E. R., Hastie, A., Krieger Filho, G. C., Alvalá, P. C., Forti, M. C., and Ometto, J. P.: Tropical peatlands and their contribution to the global carbon cycle and climate change, Global Change Biology, 27, 489–505, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15408, 2021.
Ritung, S., Wahyunto, Nugroho, K., Sukarman, Hikmatullah, Suparto, and Tafakresnanto, C. : Tim Penyusun Peta Lahan Gambut Indonesia Skala 1:250.000 (Indonesian peatland map at the scale 1:250,000), Indonesian Center for Agricultural Land Resources Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia, https://repository.pertanian.go.id/handle/123456789/5840 (last access: 9 February 2026), 2011.
Rudiyanto, Minasny, B., Satyanto, B. I., Saptomo, S. K., and McBratney, A. B.: Open digital mapping as a cost-effective method for mapping peat thickness and assessing the carbon stock of tropical peatlands, Geoderma, 313, 25–40, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.10.018, 2018.
Rydin, H. and Jeglum, J. K.: The Biology of Peatlands 230–233, Oxford Univ. Press, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199602995.001.0001, 2006.
Scharlemann, J. P., Tanner, E. V., Hiederer, R., and Kapos, V.: Global soil carbon: understanding and managing the largest terrestrial carbon pool, Global soil carbon: understanding and managing the largest terrestrial carbon pool, Carbon Management, 5, 81–91, https://doi.org/10.4155/cmt.13.77, 2014.
Sterr, H.: Assessment of vulnerability and adaptation to sea-level rise for the coastal zone of germany, J. Coast. Res., 24, 380–393, https://doi.org/10.2112/07A-0011.1, 2008.
Supardi, Subekty, A. D., and Neuzil, S. G.: General geology and peat resources of Siak Kanan and Bengkalis Island peat deposits, Sumatra, Indonesia, Geological Society of America Special Paper, 286, 45–61, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE286-p45, 1993.
Tolunay, D., Kowalchuk, G. A., Erkens, G., and Hefting, M. M.: Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition rates in drained peatlands: Impact of botanical composition, Science of the Total Environment, 930, 172639, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172639, 2024.
Umarhadi. D. A., Widyatmanti, W., Kumar, P., Yunus, A. P., Khedger, K. M., Kharazi, A., and Avtar, R.: Tropical peat subsidence rates are related to decadal LULC changes: Insights from InSAR analysis, Science of the Total Environment, 816, 151561, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151561, 2022.
US Army Map Service: Bengkalis, Series T503, NA48-9, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maps_by_the_United_States_Army_Map_Service_Series_T503 (last access: 8 February 2026), 1955.
Wahyunto, S. , Ritung, S., and Subagjo, H.: Peta Luas Sebaran Lahan Gambut dan Kandungan Karbon di Pulau Sumatera/Maps of Area of Peatland Distribution and Carbon Content in Sumatra: 1990–2002, Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme & Wildlife Habitat Canada (WHC), Bogor, Indonesia TS59, https://repository.wetlands.or.id/index.php?p=show_detail&id=773 (last access 8 February 2026), 2003.
Warburton, J., Holden, J., and Mills, A. J.: Hydrological controls of surficial mass movements in peat, Earth-Science Reviews, 67, 139–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.03.003, 2004.
Warren, M., Hergoualc'h, K., Kauffman, J. B., Murdiyarso, D., and Kolka, R.: An appraisal of Indonesia's immense peat carbon stock using national peatland maps: Uncertainties and potential losses from conversion, Carbon Balance and Management, 12, 12, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-017-0080-2, 2017.
Warren, M. W., Kauffman, J. B., Murdiyarso, D., Anshari, G., Hergoualc'h, K., Kurnianto, S., Purbopuspito, J., Gusmayanti, E., Afifudin, M., Rahajoe, J., Alhamd, L., Limin, S., and Iswandi, A.: A cost-efficient method to assess carbon stocks in tropical peat soil, Biogeosciences, 9, 4477–4485, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-4477-2012, 2012.
Whittle, A. and Gallego-Sala, A. V.: Vulnerability of the peatland carbon sink to sea-level rise, Sci. Rep. 6, 28758, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28758, 2016.
Wilford, G. E.: A peat landslide in Sarawak, Malaysia, and its significance in relation to washouts in coal seams, Journal of Sedimentary Research, 36, 244–247, https://doi.org/10.1306/74d7146a-2b21-11d7-8648000102c1865d, 1966.
Witze, A.: Why arctic fires are bad news for climate change, unprecedented wildfires released record levels of carbon, partly because they burnt peatlands, Nature News in Focus, 585, https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-02568-y, 2020.
Wong, P. P., Losada, I. J., Gattuso, J.-P., Hinkel, J., Khattabi, A., McInnes, K. L., Saito, Y., and Sallenger, A.: Coastal systems and low-lying areas, Clim. Change, 2014, 361–409, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415379.010, 2014.
Xu, J., Morris, P. J., Liu, J., and Holden, J.: PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on metaanalysis, University of Leeds, https://doi.org/10.5518/252, 2017.
Yamamoto, K., Watanabe, T., Okuyama, H., Haidar, M., Noerdin, B., Kanno, A., and Sekine, M.: Peat Coast Erosion of the Bengkalis Island and its Effect on the Groundwater Discharge, in: Proceedings of the Civil Engineering Society B2 (Coastal Engineering), 70, I_1466–I_1470, https://doi.org/10.2208/kaigan.70.I_1466, 2014.
Yamamoto, K., Asakuma, T., Kagawa, H., Sutikno, S., Basir, N., and Kanno, A.: Occurrence and disappearance of temporary peat fan by the landslide at the coastal peat coast, in: Proceedings of the Civil Engineering Society B2 (Coastal Engineering) 75, I_1249–I_1254, https://doi.org/10.2208/kaigan.75.I_1249, 2019a.
Yamamoto, K., Basir, N., Sutikno, S., Kanno, A., Kagawa, H., Suzuki, M., Akamatsu, Y., and Koyama, A.: Tropical peat debris storage in the tidal flat in northern part of the Bengkalis island, Indonesia: ICAnCEE 2018, MATEC Web of Conferences 276, 06002, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201927606002, 2019b.
Yu, Z.: Holocene carbon flux histories of the world's peatlands: global carbon cycle implications, The Holocene, 21, 761–774, https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683610386982, 2011.
Yunker, M. B., Macdonald, R. W., Fowler, B. R., Cretney, W. J., Dallimore, S. R., and Mclaughlin, F. A.: Geochemistry and fluxes of hydrocarbons to the Beaufort Sea shelf: A multivariate comparison of fluvial inputs and coastal erosion of peat using principal components analysis, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 55, 255–273, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(91)90416-3, 1991.
Short summary
This study quantifies particulate organic carbon export and peatland lateral degradation along the northern coast of Bengkalis Island, Indonesia, using field surveys and remote sensing. Estimated fluxes ranged from 2.06 to 7.60 tC m-1 yr-1 due to coastal erosion and 1.43 to 5.41 tC m-1 from peat mass movement events. These results reveal a new carbon export pathway from tropical peatland coasts to marine environments, highlighting the role of coastal processes in the global carbon cycle.
This study quantifies particulate organic carbon export and peatland lateral degradation along...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint