Articles | Volume 22, issue 21
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-6369-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-6369-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
05 Nov 2025
Research article |
| 05 Nov 2025
| 05 Nov 2025
Hot spots, hot moments, and spatiotemporal drivers of soil CO2 flux in temperate peatlands using UAV remote sensing
Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Maud Henrion
Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Angus Moore
Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Sébastien Lambot
Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Sophie Opfergelt
Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Veerle Vanacker
Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
François Jonard
Earth Observation and Ecosystem Modelling Laboratory, SPHERES Research Unit, Université de Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
Kristof Van Oost
Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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Jordan Steven Bates, Carsten Montzka, Rajina Bajracharya, Harry Vereecken, and François Jonard
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-5336, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-5336, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Biogeosciences (BG).
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We used drone-based laser, multispectral, and thermal sensors to measure crop growth and health throughout the season. By combining these different data sources with an artificial intelligence model, we found that laser signal strength provides a powerful new way to estimate plant biomass. This method can improve how farmers and researchers monitor crop productivity and manage resources more sustainably.
Alessandro Fabrizi, Peter Fiener, Kristof Van Oost, and Florian Wilken
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3804, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3804, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for SOIL (SOIL).
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Drones can be used to identify the presence of macroplastic residues after plastic film use, allowing sustainable management practices and assessing the risk of soil plastic contamination. We highlight the potential and the limitations of current technologies, providing practical strategies to overcome them. We demonstrate the possibility of building cameras tailored to plastic detection and point the way towards necessary technological development.
Maud Henrion, Sophie Opfergelt, Maëlle Villani, Philippe Roux, Djim Verleene, Eléonore du Bois d'Aische, Maxime Thomas, Gilles Denis, Edward A. G. Schuur, François Jonard, Veerle Vanacker, Kristof Van Oost, and Sébastien Lambot
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4667, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4667, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
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Taliks play an important role in permafrost degradation. This study used Ground-penetrating radar to map taliks in Alaska, focusing on water tracks. The method successfully detected taliks and determined their upper depth. These were more frequent, shallower, and thicker under water tracks. This study showed that water tracks are hotspots for talik formation, with major implications for winter water flow in permafrost landscapes.
Thomas Dethinne, Nicolas Ghilain, Christoph Kittel, Benjamin Lecart, Xavier Fettweis, and François Jonard
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3907, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3907, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Hydrology and Earth System Sciences (HESS).
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This study replace standard vegetation input of a regional climate model with a satellite-based vegetation dataset to assess how vegetation influences climate during extreme events and to test the sensitivity of the model. The results show a non-linear sensitivity to vegetation, and using an observation-based vegetation input allows for a better representation of the extreme events, highlight the need for an advanced representation of vegetation in climate model to improve climate predictions.
Jordan Bates, Carsten Montzka, Harry Vereecken, and François Jonard
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3919, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3919, 2025
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We used unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with advanced cameras and laser scanning to measure crop water use and detect early signs of plant stress. By combining 3D views of crop structure with surface temperature and reflectance data, we improved estimates of water loss, especially in dense crops like wheat. This approach can help farmers use water more efficiently, respond quickly to stress, and support sustainable agriculture in a changing climate.
Cécile Osy, Sophie Opfergelt, Arsène Druel, and François Massonnet
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3680, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3680, 2025
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The refreezing period of the active layer (the layer on top of the permafrost that freezes and thaws each year) is changing, with a delay of about five days over a large area in Siberia from 1950 to 2020 in the ERA5-Land reanalysis data. We investigate the drivers of this delay, and find that 2 m air temperature is the main driver of these changes at the large scale, which contrasts with field results in which snow cover is the main driver of changes in refreezing dynamics.
Maxime Thomas, Thomas Moenaert, Julien Radoux, Baptiste Delhez, Eléonore du Bois d'Aische, Maëlle Villani, Catherine Hirst, Erik Lundin, François Jonard, Sébastien Lambot, Kristof Van Oost, Veerle Vanacker, Matthias B. Siewert, Carl-Magnus Mörth, Michael W. Palace, Ruth K. Varner, Franklin B. Sullivan, Christina Herrick, and Sophie Opfergelt
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3788, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3788, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for The Cryosphere (TC).
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This study examines the rate of permafrost degradation, in the form of the transition from intact well-drained palsa to fully thawed and inundated fen at the Stordalen mire, Abisko, Sweden. Across the 14 hectares of the palsa mire, we demonstrate a 5-fold acceleration of the degradation in 2019–2021 compared to previous periods (1970–2014) which might lead to a pool of 12 metric tons of organic carbon exposed annually for the topsoil (23 cm depth), and an increase of ~1.3%/year of GHG emissions.
Anke Fluhrer, Martin J. Baur, María Piles, Bagher Bayat, Mehdi Rahmati, David Chaparro, Clémence Dubois, Florian M. Hellwig, Carsten Montzka, Angelika Kübert, Marlin M. Mueller, Isabel Augscheller, Francois Jonard, Konstantin Schellenberg, and Thomas Jagdhuber
Biogeosciences, 22, 3721–3746, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-3721-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-3721-2025, 2025
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This study compares established evapotranspiration products in central Europe and evaluates their multi-seasonal performance during wet and drought phases in 2017–2020 together with important soil–plant–atmosphere drivers. Results show that SEVIRI, ERA5-land, and GLEAM perform best compared to ICOS (Integrated Carbon Observation System) measurements. During moisture-limited drought years, ET (evapotranspiration) decreases due to decreasing soil moisture and increasing vapor pressure deficit, while in other years ET is mainly controlled by VPD (vapor pressure deficit).
Maxime Thomas, Julien Fouché, Hugues Titeux, Charlotte Morelle, Nathan Bemelmans, Melissa J. Lafrenière, Joanne K. Heslop, and Sophie Opfergelt
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3428, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3428, 2025
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This study examines organic carbon (OC)–mineral interactions in permafrost soils undergoing thermokarst degradation in Cape Bounty (Melville Island, Canada). Chemically stabilized OC accounts for 13 ± 5 % as organo-metallic complexes and 6 ± 2 % as associations with iron oxides. Including physical protection, up to 64 ± 10 % of OC is mineral-protected. Deeper layers show a sharp decline in mineral-bound OC, suggesting increased vulnerability to degradation when exposed by deep thaw features.
Antoine de Clippele, Astrid C. H. Jaeger, Simon Baumgartner, Marijn Bauters, Pascal Boeckx, Clement Botefa, Glenn Bush, Jessica Carilli, Travis W. Drake, Christian Ekamba, Gode Lompoko, Nivens Bey Mukwiele, Kristof Van Oost, Roland A. Werner, Joseph Zambo, Johan Six, and Matti Barthel
Biogeosciences, 22, 3011–3027, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-3011-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-3011-2025, 2025
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Tropical forest soils as a large terrestrial source of carbon dioxide (CO2) contribute to the global greenhouse gas budget. Despite this, carbon flux data from forested wetlands are scarce in tropical Africa. The study presents 3 years of semi-continuous measurements of surface CO2 fluxes within the Congo Basin. Although no seasonal patterns were evident, our results show a positive effect of soil temperature and moisture, while a quadratic relationship was observed with the water table.
Janet C. Richardson, Veerle Vanacker, David M. Hodgson, Marcus Christl, and Andreas Lang
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 315–339, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-315-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-315-2025, 2025
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Pediments are long flat surfaces that extend outwards from the foot of mountains; within South Africa they are regarded as ancient landforms that can give key insights into landscape and mantle dynamics. Cosmogenic nuclide dating has been incorporated with geological (soil formation) and geomorphological (river incision) evidence, which shows that the pediments are long-lived features beyond the ages reported by cosmogenic nuclide dating.
Bennet Juhls, Anne Morgenstern, Jens Hölemann, Antje Eulenburg, Birgit Heim, Frederieke Miesner, Hendrik Grotheer, Gesine Mollenhauer, Hanno Meyer, Ephraim Erkens, Felica Yara Gehde, Sofia Antonova, Sergey Chalov, Maria Tereshina, Oxana Erina, Evgeniya Fingert, Ekaterina Abramova, Tina Sanders, Liudmila Lebedeva, Nikolai Torgovkin, Georgii Maksimov, Vasily Povazhnyi, Rafael Gonçalves-Araujo, Urban Wünsch, Antonina Chetverova, Sophie Opfergelt, and Pier Paul Overduin
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 1–28, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-1-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-1-2025, 2025
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The Siberian Arctic is warming fast: permafrost is thawing, river chemistry is changing, and coastal ecosystems are affected. We aimed to understand changes in the Lena River, a major Arctic river flowing to the Arctic Ocean, by collecting 4.5 years of detailed water data, including temperature and carbon and nutrient contents. This dataset records current conditions and helps us to detect future changes. Explore it at https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.913197 and https://lena-monitoring.awi.de/.
Angus K. Moore and Darryl E. Granger
Geochronology, 6, 541–552, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-6-541-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-6-541-2024, 2024
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Cosmogenic nuclide geochronology requires accurately scaling production rates with altitude. The energy spectrum of cosmic radiation changes with altitude, and reactions that are sensitive to different energies may have different scaling behavior. Here, we model the altitude scaling of 36Cl production from Fe and evaluate this model against calibration data. The data are broadly consistent with the prediction of larger-altitude scaling factors for 36Cl from Fe than for other reactions.
Armando Molina, Veerle Vanacker, Oliver Chadwick, Santiago Zhiminaicela, Marife Corre, and Edzo Veldkamp
Biogeosciences, 21, 3075–3091, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3075-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3075-2024, 2024
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The tropical Andes contains unique landscapes where forest patches are surrounded by tussock grasses and cushion-forming plants. The aboveground vegetation composition informs us about belowground nutrient availability: patterns in plant-available nutrients resulted from strong biocycling of cations and removal of soil nutrients by plant uptake or leaching. Future changes in vegetation distribution will affect soil water and solute fluxes and the aquatic ecology of Andean rivers and lakes.
Elisabeth Mauclet, Maëlle Villani, Arthur Monhonval, Catherine Hirst, Edward A. G. Schuur, and Sophie Opfergelt
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 3891–3904, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3891-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3891-2023, 2023
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Permafrost ecosystems are limited in nutrients for vegetation development and constrain the biological activity to the active layer. Upon Arctic warming, permafrost degradation exposes organic and mineral soil material that may directly influence the capacity of the soil to retain key nutrients for vegetation growth and development. Here, we demonstrate that the average total exchangeable nutrient density (Ca, K, Mg, and Na) is more than 2 times higher in the permafrost than in the active layer.
Sebastián Páez-Bimos, Armando Molina, Marlon Calispa, Pierre Delmelle, Braulio Lahuatte, Marcos Villacís, Teresa Muñoz, and Veerle Vanacker
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 1507–1529, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-1507-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-1507-2023, 2023
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This study analyzes how vegetation influences soil hydrology, water fluxes, and chemical weathering rates in the high Andes. There are clear differences in the A horizon. The extent of soil chemical weathering varies depending on vegetation type. This difference is attributed mainly to the water fluxes. Our findings reveal that vegetation can modify soil properties in the uppermost horizon, altering the water balance, solutes, and chemical weathering throughout the entire soil profile.
Kristof Van Oost and Johan Six
Biogeosciences, 20, 635–646, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-635-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-635-2023, 2023
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The direction and magnitude of the net erosion-induced land–atmosphere C exchange have been the topic of a big scientific debate for more than a decade now. Many have assumed that erosion leads to a loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere, whereas others have shown that erosion ultimately leads to a carbon sink. Here, we show that the soil carbon erosion source–sink paradox is reconciled when the broad range of temporal and spatial scales at which the underlying processes operate are considered.
Nathan Vandermaelen, Koen Beerten, François Clapuyt, Marcus Christl, and Veerle Vanacker
Geochronology, 4, 713–730, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-713-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-713-2022, 2022
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We constrained deposition phases of fluvial sediments (NE Belgium) over the last 1 Myr with analysis and modelling of rare isotopes accumulation within sediments, occurring as a function of time and inverse function of depth. They allowed the determination of three superposed deposition phases and intercalated non-deposition periods of ~ 40 kyr each. These phases correspond to 20 % of the sediment age, which highlights the importance of considering deposition phase when dating fluvial sediments.
François Jonard, Andrew F. Feldman, Daniel J. Short Gianotti, and Dara Entekhabi
Biogeosciences, 19, 5575–5590, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5575-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5575-2022, 2022
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We investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of light and water limitation in plant function at the ecosystem scale. Using satellite observations, we characterize the nonlinear relationships between sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) and water and light availability. This study highlights that soil moisture limitations on SIF are found primarily in drier environments, while light limitations are found in intermediately wet regions.
Haicheng Zhang, Ronny Lauerwald, Pierre Regnier, Philippe Ciais, Kristof Van Oost, Victoria Naipal, Bertrand Guenet, and Wenping Yuan
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 1119–1144, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1119-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1119-2022, 2022
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We present a land surface model which can simulate the complete lateral transfer of sediment and carbon from land to ocean through rivers. Our model captures the water, sediment, and organic carbon discharges in European rivers well. Application of our model in Europe indicates that lateral carbon transfer can strongly change regional land carbon budgets by affecting organic carbon distribution and soil moisture.
Jordan Bates, Francois Jonard, Rajina Bajracharya, Harry Vereecken, and Carsten Montzka
AGILE GIScience Ser., 3, 23, https://doi.org/10.5194/agile-giss-3-23-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/agile-giss-3-23-2022, 2022
Elisabeth Mauclet, Yannick Agnan, Catherine Hirst, Arthur Monhonval, Benoît Pereira, Aubry Vandeuren, Maëlle Villani, Justin Ledman, Meghan Taylor, Briana L. Jasinski, Edward A. G. Schuur, and Sophie Opfergelt
Biogeosciences, 19, 2333–2351, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2333-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2333-2022, 2022
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Arctic warming and permafrost degradation largely affect tundra vegetation. Wetter lowlands show an increase in sedges, whereas drier uplands favor shrub expansion. Here, we demonstrate that the difference in the foliar elemental composition of typical tundra vegetation species controls the change in local foliar elemental stock and potential mineral element cycling through litter production upon a shift in tundra vegetation.
Veerle Vanacker, Armando Molina, Miluska A. Rosas, Vivien Bonnesoeur, Francisco Román-Dañobeytia, Boris F. Ochoa-Tocachi, and Wouter Buytaert
SOIL, 8, 133–147, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-133-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-133-2022, 2022
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The Andes region is prone to natural hazards due to its steep topography and climatic variability. Anthropogenic activities further exacerbate environmental hazards and risks. This systematic review synthesizes the knowledge on the effectiveness of nature-based solutions. Conservation of natural vegetation and implementation of soil and water conservation measures had significant and positive effects on soil erosion mitigation and topsoil organic carbon concentrations.
Pengzhi Zhao, Daniel Joseph Fallu, Sara Cucchiaro, Paolo Tarolli, Clive Waddington, David Cockcroft, Lisa Snape, Andreas Lang, Sebastian Doetterl, Antony G. Brown, and Kristof Van Oost
Biogeosciences, 18, 6301–6312, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-6301-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-6301-2021, 2021
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We investigate the factors controlling the soil organic carbon (SOC) stability and temperature sensitivity of abandoned prehistoric agricultural terrace soils. Results suggest that the burial of former topsoil due to terracing provided an SOC stabilization mechanism. Both the soil C : N ratio and SOC mineral protection regulate soil SOC temperature sensitivity. However, which mechanism predominantly controls SOC temperature sensitivity depends on the age of the buried terrace soils.
Laura Summerauer, Philipp Baumann, Leonardo Ramirez-Lopez, Matti Barthel, Marijn Bauters, Benjamin Bukombe, Mario Reichenbach, Pascal Boeckx, Elizabeth Kearsley, Kristof Van Oost, Bernard Vanlauwe, Dieudonné Chiragaga, Aimé Bisimwa Heri-Kazi, Pieter Moonen, Andrew Sila, Keith Shepherd, Basile Bazirake Mujinya, Eric Van Ranst, Geert Baert, Sebastian Doetterl, and Johan Six
SOIL, 7, 693–715, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-693-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-693-2021, 2021
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We present a soil mid-infrared library with over 1800 samples from central Africa in order to facilitate soil analyses of this highly understudied yet critical area. Together with an existing continental library, we demonstrate a regional analysis and geographical extrapolation to predict total carbon and nitrogen. Our results show accurate predictions and highlight the value that the data contribute to existing libraries. Our library is openly available for public use and for expansion.
Lander Van Tricht, Philippe Huybrechts, Jonas Van Breedam, Alexander Vanhulle, Kristof Van Oost, and Harry Zekollari
The Cryosphere, 15, 4445–4464, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4445-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4445-2021, 2021
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We conducted innovative research on the use of drones to determine the surface mass balance (SMB) of two glaciers. Considering appropriate spatial scales, we succeeded in determining the SMB in the ablation area with large accuracy. Consequently, we are convinced that our method and the use of drones to monitor the mass balance of a glacier’s ablation area can be an add-on to stake measurements in order to obtain a broader picture of the heterogeneity of the SMB of glaciers.
Sebastian Doetterl, Rodrigue K. Asifiwe, Geert Baert, Fernando Bamba, Marijn Bauters, Pascal Boeckx, Benjamin Bukombe, Georg Cadisch, Matthew Cooper, Landry N. Cizungu, Alison Hoyt, Clovis Kabaseke, Karsten Kalbitz, Laurent Kidinda, Annina Maier, Moritz Mainka, Julia Mayrock, Daniel Muhindo, Basile B. Mujinya, Serge M. Mukotanyi, Leon Nabahungu, Mario Reichenbach, Boris Rewald, Johan Six, Anna Stegmann, Laura Summerauer, Robin Unseld, Bernard Vanlauwe, Kristof Van Oost, Kris Verheyen, Cordula Vogel, Florian Wilken, and Peter Fiener
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 4133–4153, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4133-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4133-2021, 2021
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The African Tropics are hotspots of modern-day land use change and are of great relevance for the global carbon cycle. Here, we present data collected as part of the DFG-funded project TropSOC along topographic, land use, and geochemical gradients in the eastern Congo Basin and the Albertine Rift. Our database contains spatial and temporal data on soil, vegetation, environmental properties, and land management collected from 136 pristine tropical forest and cropland plots between 2017 and 2020.
Florian Wilken, Peter Fiener, Michael Ketterer, Katrin Meusburger, Daniel Iragi Muhindo, Kristof van Oost, and Sebastian Doetterl
SOIL, 7, 399–414, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-399-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-399-2021, 2021
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This study demonstrates the usability of fallout radionuclides 239Pu and 240Pu as a tool to assess soil degradation processes in tropical Africa, which is particularly valuable in regions with limited infrastructure and challenging monitoring conditions for landscape-scale soil degradation monitoring. The study shows no indication of soil redistribution in forest sites but substantial soil redistribution in cropland (sedimentation >40 cm in 55 years) with high variability.
Petra Zahajská, Carolina Olid, Johanna Stadmark, Sherilyn C. Fritz, Sophie Opfergelt, and Daniel J. Conley
Biogeosciences, 18, 2325–2345, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2325-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2325-2021, 2021
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The drivers of high accumulation of single-cell siliceous algae (diatoms) in a high-latitude lake have not been fully characterized before. We studied silicon cycling of the lake through water, radon, silicon, and stable silicon isotope balances. Results showed that groundwater brings 3 times more water and dissolved silica than the stream inlet. We demonstrate that groundwater discharge and low sediment deposition have driven the high diatom accumulation in the studied lake in the past century.
Simon Baumgartner, Marijn Bauters, Matti Barthel, Travis W. Drake, Landry C. Ntaboba, Basile M. Bazirake, Johan Six, Pascal Boeckx, and Kristof Van Oost
SOIL, 7, 83–94, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-83-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-83-2021, 2021
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We compared stable isotope signatures of soil profiles in different forest ecosystems within the Congo Basin to assess ecosystem-level differences in N cycling, and we examined the local effect of topography on the isotopic signature of soil N. Soil δ15N profiles indicated that the N cycling in in the montane forest is more closed, whereas the lowland forest and Miombo woodland experienced a more open N cycle. Topography only alters soil δ15N values in forests with high erosional forces.
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Short summary
Combining Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) remote sensing with in-situ monitoring provides high spatial-temporal insights into CO2 fluxes from temperate peatlands. Dynamic factors (soil temperature and moisture) are the primary drivers contributing to 29 % of the spatial and 43 % of the seasonal variation. UAVs are effective tools for mapping daily soil respiration. CO2 fluxes from hot spots & moments contribute 20 % and 30 % of total CO2 fluxes, despite representing only 10 % of the area and time.
Combining Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) remote sensing with in-situ monitoring provides high...
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