Articles | Volume 19, issue 24
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5645-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5645-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
14 Dec 2022
Research article |
| 14 Dec 2022
| 14 Dec 2022
On physical mechanisms enhancing air–sea CO2 exchange
Lucía Gutiérrez-Loza
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Erik Nilsson
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Marcus B. Wallin
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Erik Sahlée
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Anna Rutgersson
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Related authors
Cecilia Äijälä, Yafei Nie, Lucía Gutiérrez-Loza, Chiara De Falco, Siv Kari Lauvset, Bin Cheng, David Anthony Bailey, and Petteri Uotila
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 4823–4853, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4823-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4823-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The sea ice around Antarctica has experienced record lows in recent years. To understand these changes, models are needed. MetROMS-UHel is a new version of an ocean–sea ice model with updated sea ice code and the atmospheric data. We investigate the effect of our updates on different variables with a focus on sea ice and show an improved sea ice representation as compared with observations.
Cecilia Äijälä, Yafei Nie, Lucía Gutiérrez-Loza, Chiara De Falco, Siv Kari Lauvset, Bin Cheng, David Anthony Bailey, and Petteri Uotila
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 4823–4853, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4823-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4823-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The sea ice around Antarctica has experienced record lows in recent years. To understand these changes, models are needed. MetROMS-UHel is a new version of an ocean–sea ice model with updated sea ice code and the atmospheric data. We investigate the effect of our updates on different variables with a focus on sea ice and show an improved sea ice representation as compared with observations.
Ferran Lopez-Marti, Mireia Ginesta, Davide Faranda, Anna Rutgersson, Pascal Yiou, Lichuan Wu, and Gabriele Messori
Earth Syst. Dynam., 16, 169–187, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-169-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-169-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Explosive cyclones and atmospheric rivers are two main drivers of extreme weather in Europe. In this study, we investigate their joint changes in future climates over the North Atlantic. Our results show that both the concurrence of these events and the intensity of atmospheric rivers increase by the end of the century across different future scenarios. Furthermore, explosive cyclones associated with atmospheric rivers last longer and are deeper than those without atmospheric rivers.
Kévin Dubois, Morten Andreas Dahl Larsen, Martin Drews, Erik Nilsson, and Anna Rutgersson
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3245–3265, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3245-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3245-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Both extreme river discharge and storm surges can interact at the coast and lead to flooding. However, it is difficult to predict flood levels during such compound events because they are rare and complex. Here, we focus on the quantification of uncertainties and investigate the sources of limitations while carrying out such analyses at Halmstad, Sweden. Based on a sensitivity analysis, we emphasize that both the choice of data source and statistical methodology influence the results.
Christoffer Hallgren, Jeanie A. Aird, Stefan Ivanell, Heiner Körnich, Ville Vakkari, Rebecca J. Barthelmie, Sara C. Pryor, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 821–840, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-821-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-821-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Knowing the wind speed across the rotor of a wind turbine is key in making good predictions of the power production. However, models struggle to capture both the speed and the shape of the wind profile. Using machine learning methods based on the model data, we show that the predictions can be improved drastically. The work focuses on three coastal sites, spread over the Northern Hemisphere (the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and the US Atlantic coast) with similar results for all sites.
Julika Zinke, Ernst Douglas Nilsson, Piotr Markuszewski, Paul Zieger, Eva Monica Mårtensson, Anna Rutgersson, Erik Nilsson, and Matthew Edward Salter
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 1895–1918, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1895-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1895-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We conducted two research campaigns in the Baltic Sea, during which we combined laboratory sea spray simulation experiments with flux measurements on a nearby island. To combine these two methods, we scaled the laboratory measurements to the flux measurements using three different approaches. As a result, we derived a parameterization that is dependent on wind speed and wave state for particles with diameters 0.015–10 μm. This parameterization is applicable to low-salinity waters.
Kévin Dubois, Morten Andreas Dahl Larsen, Martin Drews, Erik Nilsson, and Anna Rutgersson
Ocean Sci., 20, 21–30, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-21-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-21-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal floods occur due to extreme sea levels (ESLs) which are difficult to predict because of their rarity. Long records of accurate sea levels at the local scale increase ESL predictability. Here, we apply a machine learning technique to extend sea level observation data in the past based on a neighbouring tide gauge. We compared the results with a linear model. We conclude that both models give reasonable results with a better accuracy towards the extremes for the machine learning model.
Christoffer Hallgren, Jeanie A. Aird, Stefan Ivanell, Heiner Körnich, Rebecca J. Barthelmie, Sara C. Pryor, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1651–1658, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1651-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1651-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Low-level jets (LLJs) are special types of non-ideal wind profiles affecting both wind energy production and loads on a wind turbine. However, among LLJ researchers, there is no consensus regarding which definition to use to identify these profiles. In this work, we compare two different ways of identifying the LLJ – the falloff definition and the shear definition – and argue why the shear definition is better suited to wind energy applications.
Christoffer Hallgren, Heiner Körnich, Stefan Ivanell, Ville Vakkari, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-129, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-129, 2023
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
Sometimes, the wind changes direction between the bottom and top part of a wind turbine. This affects both the power production and the loads on the turbine. In this study, a climatology of pronounced changes in wind direction across the rotor is created, focusing on Scandinavia. The weather conditions responsible for these changes in wind direction are investigated and the climatology is compared to measurements from two coastal sites, indicating an underestimation by the climatology.
Emily H. Stanley, Luke C. Loken, Nora J. Casson, Samantha K. Oliver, Ryan A. Sponseller, Marcus B. Wallin, Liwei Zhang, and Gerard Rocher-Ros
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 2879–2926, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-2879-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-2879-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Global River Methane Database (GRiMeDB) presents CH4 concentrations and fluxes for flowing waters and concurrent measures of CO2, N2O, and several physicochemical variables, plus information about sample locations and methods used to measure gas fluxes. GRiMeDB is intended to increase opportunities to understand variation in fluvial CH4, test hypotheses related to greenhouse gas dynamics, and reduce uncertainty in future estimates of gas emissions from world streams and rivers.
Christoffer Hallgren, Johan Arnqvist, Erik Nilsson, Stefan Ivanell, Metodija Shapkalijevski, August Thomasson, Heidi Pettersson, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1183–1207, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1183-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Non-idealized wind profiles with negative shear in part of the profile (e.g., low-level jets) frequently occur in coastal environments and are important to take into consideration for offshore wind power. Using observations from a coastal site in the Baltic Sea, we analyze in which meteorological and sea state conditions these profiles occur and study how they alter the turbulence structure of the boundary layer compared to idealized profiles.
H. E. Markus Meier, Madline Kniebusch, Christian Dieterich, Matthias Gröger, Eduardo Zorita, Ragnar Elmgren, Kai Myrberg, Markus P. Ahola, Alena Bartosova, Erik Bonsdorff, Florian Börgel, Rene Capell, Ida Carlén, Thomas Carlund, Jacob Carstensen, Ole B. Christensen, Volker Dierschke, Claudia Frauen, Morten Frederiksen, Elie Gaget, Anders Galatius, Jari J. Haapala, Antti Halkka, Gustaf Hugelius, Birgit Hünicke, Jaak Jaagus, Mart Jüssi, Jukka Käyhkö, Nina Kirchner, Erik Kjellström, Karol Kulinski, Andreas Lehmann, Göran Lindström, Wilhelm May, Paul A. Miller, Volker Mohrholz, Bärbel Müller-Karulis, Diego Pavón-Jordán, Markus Quante, Marcus Reckermann, Anna Rutgersson, Oleg P. Savchuk, Martin Stendel, Laura Tuomi, Markku Viitasalo, Ralf Weisse, and Wenyan Zhang
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 457–593, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Based on the Baltic Earth Assessment Reports of this thematic issue in Earth System Dynamics and recent peer-reviewed literature, current knowledge about the effects of global warming on past and future changes in the climate of the Baltic Sea region is summarised and assessed. The study is an update of the Second Assessment of Climate Change (BACC II) published in 2015 and focuses on the atmosphere, land, cryosphere, ocean, sediments, and the terrestrial and marine biosphere.
Anna Rutgersson, Erik Kjellström, Jari Haapala, Martin Stendel, Irina Danilovich, Martin Drews, Kirsti Jylhä, Pentti Kujala, Xiaoli Guo Larsén, Kirsten Halsnæs, Ilari Lehtonen, Anna Luomaranta, Erik Nilsson, Taru Olsson, Jani Särkkä, Laura Tuomi, and Norbert Wasmund
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 251–301, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-251-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-251-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A natural hazard is a naturally occurring extreme event with a negative effect on people, society, or the environment; major events in the study area include wind storms, extreme waves, high and low sea level, ice ridging, heavy precipitation, sea-effect snowfall, river floods, heat waves, ice seasons, and drought. In the future, an increase in sea level, extreme precipitation, heat waves, and phytoplankton blooms is expected, and a decrease in cold spells and severe ice winters is anticipated.
Matthias Gröger, Christian Dieterich, Jari Haapala, Ha Thi Minh Ho-Hagemann, Stefan Hagemann, Jaromir Jakacki, Wilhelm May, H. E. Markus Meier, Paul A. Miller, Anna Rutgersson, and Lichuan Wu
Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 939–973, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-939-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-939-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Regional climate studies are typically pursued by single Earth system component models (e.g., ocean models and atmosphere models). These models are driven by prescribed data which hamper the simulation of feedbacks between Earth system components. To overcome this, models were developed that interactively couple model components and allow an adequate simulation of Earth system interactions important for climate. This article reviews recent developments of such models for the Baltic Sea region.
Christoffer Hallgren, Stefan Ivanell, Heiner Körnich, Ville Vakkari, and Erik Sahlée
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1205–1226, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1205-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1205-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
As wind power becomes more popular, there is a growing demand for accurate power production forecasts. In this paper we investigated different methods to improve wind power forecasts for an offshore location in the Baltic Sea, using both simple and more advanced techniques. The performance of the methods is evaluated for different weather conditions. Smoothing the forecast was found to be the best method in general, but we recommend selecting which method to use based on the forecasted weather.
Jens Daniel Müller, Bernd Schneider, Ulf Gräwe, Peer Fietzek, Marcus Bo Wallin, Anna Rutgersson, Norbert Wasmund, Siegfried Krüger, and Gregor Rehder
Biogeosciences, 18, 4889–4917, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4889-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4889-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Based on profiling pCO2 measurements from a field campaign, we quantify the biomass production of a cyanobacteria bloom in the Baltic Sea, the export of which would foster deep water deoxygenation. We further demonstrate how this biomass production can be accurately reconstructed from long-term surface measurements made on cargo vessels in combination with modelled temperature profiles. This approach enables a better understanding of a severe concern for the Baltic’s good environmental status.
Taru Olsson, Anna Luomaranta, Kirsti Jylhä, Julia Jeworrek, Tuuli Perttula, Christian Dieterich, Lichuan Wu, Anna Rutgersson, and Antti Mäkelä
Adv. Sci. Res., 17, 87–104, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-17-87-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-17-87-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Statistics of the frequency and intensity of snow bands affecting the Finnish coast during years 2000–2010 was conducted. A set of criteria for meteorological variables favoring the formation of the snow bands were applied to regional climate model (RCA4) data. We found on average three days per year with favorable conditions for coastal sea-effect snowfall. The heaviest convective snowfall events were detected most frequently over the southern coastline.
Marcus B. Wallin, Joachim Audet, Mike Peacock, Erik Sahlée, and Mattias Winterdahl
Biogeosciences, 17, 2487–2498, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2487-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2487-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Here we show that small streams draining agricultural areas are potential hotspots for emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere. We further conclude that the variability in stream CO2 concentration over time is very high, caused by variations in both water discharge and primary production. Given the observed high levels of CO2 and its temporally variable nature, agricultural streams clearly need more attention in order to understand and incorporate these dynamics in large-scale extrapolations.
Jesús Yus-Díez, Mireia Udina, Maria Rosa Soler, Marie Lothon, Erik Nilsson, Joan Bech, and Jielun Sun
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 9495–9514, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-9495-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-9495-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study helps improve the understanding of the turbulence description and the interactions occurring in the lower part of the boundary layer. It is carried out at an orographically influenced site close to the Pyrenees to explore the hockey-stick transition (HOST) theory. HOST is seen to be strongly dependent on both the meteorological conditions and the orographic features. Examples of intermittent turbulence events that lead to transitions between the turbulence regimes are also identified.
Gaëlle Parard, Anna Rutgersson, Sindu Raj Parampil, and Anastase Alexandre Charantonis
Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 1093–1106, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-1093-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-1093-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal environments and shelf sea represent 7.6 % of the total oceanic surface area. They are, however, biogeochemically more dynamic and probably more vulnerable to climate change than the open ocean. Whatever the responses of the open ocean to climate change, they will propagate to the coastal ocean. We used the self-organizing multiple linear output (SOMLO) method to estimate the ocean surface pCO2 in the Baltic Sea from remotely sensed measurements and we estimated the air–sea CO2 flux.
Björn Claremar, Karin Haglund, and Anna Rutgersson
Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 901–919, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-901-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-901-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Shipping is the most cost-effective option for the global transport of goods, and over 90 % of world trade is carried by sea. The shipping sector, however, contributes to emissions of pollutants into the air and water. Estimates of deposition and near-surface concentrations of sulfur, nitrogen, and particulate matter originating from shipping in the Baltic Sea region have been developed for present conditions concerning traffic intensity and fuel as well as for future scenarios until 2050.
Julia Jeworrek, Lichuan Wu, Christian Dieterich, and Anna Rutgersson
Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 163–175, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-163-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-163-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Convective snow bands develop in response to a cold air outbreak from the continent over an open water surface. In the Baltic Sea region these cause intense snowfall and can cause serious problems for traffic, infrastructure and other important establishments of society. The conditions for these events to occur were characterized and the potential of using a regional modelling system was evaluated. The modelling system was used to develop statistics of these events to occur in time and space.
Fleur Couvreux, Eric Bazile, Guylaine Canut, Yann Seity, Marie Lothon, Fabienne Lohou, Françoise Guichard, and Erik Nilsson
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 8983–9002, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8983-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8983-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
This study evaluates the ability of operational models to predict the boundary-layer turbulent processes and mesoscale variability observed during the Boundary Layer Late-Afternoon and Sunset Turbulence field campaign. The models succeed in reproducing the variability from one day to another in terms of cloud cover, temperature and boundary-layer depth. However, they exhibit some systematic biases. The high-resolution model reproduces the vertical structures better.
Erik Nilsson, Fabienne Lohou, Marie Lothon, Eric Pardyjak, Larry Mahrt, and Clara Darbieu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 8849–8872, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8849-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8849-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The evolution of near-surface turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) and its budget in the afternoon transition has been studied based on field measurements. The study shows that TKE transport is an important budget term that needs to be taken into account in modeling of TKE. A non-local parametrization of dissipation using a TKE–length scale model which takes into account of boundary layer depth also gave improved results compared to a local parametrization.
Erik Nilsson, Marie Lothon, Fabienne Lohou, Eric Pardyjak, Oscar Hartogensis, and Clara Darbieu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 8873–8898, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8873-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-8873-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
A new simple model for turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) and its budget is presented for the sheared convective atmospheric boundary layer. It is used to study effects of buoyancy and shear on TKE evolution during the afternoon transition, especially near the surface. We also find a region of weak turbulence during unstable afternoon conditions below the inversion top, which we refer to as a "pre-residual layer".
Tito Maldonado, Anna Rutgersson, Eric Alfaro, Jorge Amador, and Björn Claremar
Adv. Geosci., 42, 35–50, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-42-35-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-42-35-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the relationship between the midsummer drought (MSD) in Central America, and the sea surface temperatures (SST) of the neighbouring ocean in interannual scales. Besides, the motivation of this study is also to provide a systematic method for forecasting the MSD period. We found that the intensity and the magnitude of the MSD shown a strong association with the contrast in the surface temperatures between the eastern tropical Pacific, and the tropical north Atlantic.
V. M. N. C. S. Vieira, E. Sahlée, P. Jurus, E. Clementi, H. Pettersson, and M. Mateus
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15901-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15901-2015, 2015
Manuscript not accepted for further review
V. M. N. C. S. Vieira, E. Sahlée, P. Jurus, E. Clementi, H. Pettersson, and M. Mateus
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15925-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-12-15925-2015, 2015
Manuscript not accepted for further review
G. Parard, A. A. Charantonis, and A. Rutgerson
Biogeosciences, 12, 3369–3384, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-3369-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-3369-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we used combines two existing methods (i.e. self-organizing maps and multiple linear regression) to estimate the ocean surface partial pressure of CO2 in the Baltic Sea from the remotely sensed sea surface temperature, chlorophyll, coloured dissolved organic matter, net primary production, and
mixed-layer depth. The outputs of this research have a horizontal resolution of 4km and cover the 1998–2011 period. These outputs give a monthly map of the Baltic Sea.
F. I. Leith, K. J. Dinsmore, M. B. Wallin, M. F. Billett, K. V. Heal, H. Laudon, M. G. Öquist, and K. Bishop
Biogeosciences, 12, 1881–1892, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-1881-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-1881-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
Carbon dioxide transport between the terrestrial and aquatic systems was dominated by export from the near-stream riparian zone. Over the year, riparian export was highest during autumn storms and the spring snowmelt event. This resulted in high downstream export during these periods with vertical evasion from the stream surface accounting for 60% of the total stream water export, highlighting the importance of evasion to carbon export via the aquatic conduit.
E. Podgrajsek, E. Sahlée, D. Bastviken, J. Holst, A. Lindroth, L. Tranvik, and A. Rutgersson
Biogeosciences, 11, 4225–4233, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-4225-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-4225-2014, 2014
Related subject area
Biogeochemistry: Air - Sea Exchange
Three-compartment, two-parameter concentration-driven model for uptake of excess atmospheric CO2 by the global ocean
Variable organic matter stoichiometry enhances the biological drawdown of CO2 in the northwest European shelf seas
Anomalous summertime CO2 sink in the subpolar Southern Ocean promoted by early 2021 sea ice retreat
Methane ebullition as the dominant pathway for carbon sea-air exchange in coastal, shallow water habitats of the Baltic Sea
Northern North Atlantic climate variability controls on ocean carbon sinks in EC-Earth3-CC
Aerosol trace element solubility and deposition fluxes over the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea basins
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) climatologies, fluxes, and trends – Part 1: Differences between seawater DMS estimations
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) climatologies, fluxes, and trends – Part 2: Sea–air fluxes
High-frequency continuous measurements reveal strong diel and seasonal cycling of pCO2 and CO2 flux in a mesohaline reach of the Chesapeake Bay
Significant role of physical transport in the marine carbon monoxide (CO) cycle: observations in the East Sea (Sea of Japan), the western North Pacific, and the Bering Sea in summer
Central Arctic Ocean surface–atmosphere exchange of CO2 and CH4 constrained by direct measurements
Spatial and seasonal variability in volatile organic sulfur compounds in seawater and the overlying atmosphere of the Bohai and Yellow seas
Estimating marine carbon uptake in the northeast Pacific using a neural network approach
Sea–air methane flux estimates derived from marine surface observations and instantaneous atmospheric measurements in the northern Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay
Global analysis of the controls on seawater dimethylsulfide spatial variability
Air–sea gas exchange in a seagrass ecosystem – results from a 3He ∕ SF6 tracer release experiment
Concentrations of dissolved dimethyl sulfide (DMS), methanethiol and other trace gases in context of microbial communities from the temperate Atlantic to the Arctic Ocean
Marine nitrogen fixation as a possible source of atmospheric water-soluble organic nitrogen aerosols in the subtropical North Pacific
Ice nucleating properties of the sea ice diatom Fragilariopsis cylindrus and its exudates
Winter season Southern Ocean distributions of climate-relevant trace gases
How biogenic polymers control surfactant dynamics in the surface microlayer: insights from a coastal Baltic Sea study
Identifying the biological control of the annual and multi-year variations in South Atlantic air–sea CO2 flux
The sensitivity of pCO2 reconstructions to sampling scales across a Southern Ocean sub-domain: a semi-idealized ocean sampling simulation approach
Physical mechanisms for biological carbon uptake during the onset of the spring phytoplankton bloom in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea (BOUSSOLE site)
Wintertime process study of the North Brazil Current rings reveals the region as a larger sink for CO2 than expected
New constraints on biological production and mixing processes in the South China Sea from triple isotope composition of dissolved oxygen
Tidal mixing of estuarine and coastal waters in the western English Channel is a control on spatial and temporal variability in seawater CO2
A seamless ensemble-based reconstruction of surface ocean pCO2 and air–sea CO2 fluxes over the global coastal and open oceans
Sea ice concentration impacts dissolved organic gases in the Canadian Arctic
Evaluating the Arabian Sea as a regional source of atmospheric CO2: seasonal variability and drivers
An empirical MLR for estimating surface layer DIC and a comparative assessment to other gap-filling techniques for ocean carbon time series
Derivation of seawater pCO2 from net community production identifies the South Atlantic Ocean as a CO2 source
Eukaryotic community composition in the sea surface microlayer across an east–west transect in the Mediterranean Sea
Enhancement of the North Atlantic CO2 sink by Arctic Waters
Global ocean dimethyl sulfide climatology estimated from observations and an artificial neural network
Atmospheric deposition of organic matter at a remote site in the central Mediterranean Sea: implications for the marine ecosystem
Underway seawater and atmospheric measurements of volatile organic compounds in the Southern Ocean
Dimethylsulfide (DMS), marine biogenic aerosols and the ecophysiology of coral reefs
Spatial variations in CO2 fluxes in the Saguenay Fjord (Quebec, Canada) and results of a water mixing model
Gas exchange estimates in the Peruvian upwelling regime biased by multi-day near-surface stratification
Insights from year-long measurements of air–water CH4 and CO2 exchange in a coastal environment
On the role of climate modes in modulating the air–sea CO2 fluxes in eastern boundary upwelling systems
Reviews and syntheses: the GESAMP atmospheric iron deposition model intercomparison study
Increase of dissolved inorganic carbon and decrease in pH in near-surface waters in the Mediterranean Sea during the past two decades
Utilizing the Drake Passage Time-series to understand variability and change in subpolar Southern Ocean pCO2
Effect of wind speed on the size distribution of gel particles in the sea surface microlayer: insights from a wind–wave channel experiment
The seasonal cycle of pCO2 and CO2 fluxes in the Southern Ocean: diagnosing anomalies in CMIP5 Earth system models
Marine phytoplankton stoichiometry mediates nonlinear interactions between nutrient supply, temperature, and atmospheric CO2
Interannual drivers of the seasonal cycle of CO2 in the Southern Ocean
Constraints on global oceanic emissions of N2O from observations and models
Stephen E. Schwartz
Biogeosciences, 22, 2979–3009, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2979-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2979-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The net uptake coefficient of anthropogenic CO2 by the global ocean (net uptake flux divided by excess atmospheric CO2 stock above preindustrial levels) calculated with a simple, transparent, three-compartment concentration-driven model with two independent parameters is determined to be 0.010 ± 0.002 yr-1 (with a net uptake flux in the year 2022 of 2.84 ± 0.6 Pg yr-1). This result compares well with observations and with much more complex carbon cycle models.
Kubilay Timur Demir, Moritz Mathis, Jan Kossack, Feifei Liu, Ute Daewel, Christoph Stegert, Helmuth Thomas, and Corinna Schrum
Biogeosciences, 22, 2569–2599, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2569-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2569-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines how variations in the ratios of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in organic matter affect carbon cycling in the northwest European shelf seas. Traditional models with fixed ratios tend to underestimate biological carbon uptake. By integrating variable ratios into a regional model, we find that carbon dioxide uptake increases by 9 %–31 %. These results highlight the need to include variable ratios for accurate assessments of regional and global carbon cycles.
Kirtana Naëck, Jacqueline Boutin, Sebastiaan Swart, Marcel du Plessis, Liliane Merlivat, Laurence Beaumont, Antonio Lourenco, Francesco d'Ovidio, Louise Rousselet, Brian Ward, and Jean-Baptiste Sallée
Biogeosciences, 22, 1947–1968, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1947-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1947-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In summer 2022, a CARbon Interface OCean Atmosphere (CARIOCA) drifting buoy observed an anomalously strong ocean carbon sink in the subpolar Southern Ocean associated with large plumes of chlorophyll a. Lagrangian backward trajectories indicate that these waters originated from the sea ice edge in spring 2021. Our study highlights the northward migration of the CO2 sink associated with early sea ice retreat.
Thea Bisander, John Prytherch, and Volker Brüchert
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1583, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1583, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal waters exchange greenhouse gases with the atmosphere, but their exact contributions are not well understood. This study measured carbon dioxide and methane emissions in different Baltic Sea habitats using floating chambers. The results show that methane emissions, especially from bubbling, play a dominant role in the total exchange of many habitats. When scaled up over the Stockholm archipelago, the coastal emissions add significantly to the regional greenhouse gas budget.
Anna Pedersen, Carolin R. Löscher, and Steffen M. Olsen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1218, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1218, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The North Atlantic plays a crucial role in absorbing atmospheric CO2, but its air-sea CO2 flux varies across time and space. Using historical climate model simulations, we investigate how physical and oceanic processes drive the variability. Our results show that sea ice, temperature, salinity, wind stress, and ocean circulation shape CO2 exchange, with short-term fluctuations playing a dominant role. Understanding these complex interactions is key to predicting future ocean carbon uptake.
Rachel U. Shelley, Alex R. Baker, Max Thomas, and Sam Murphy
Biogeosciences, 22, 585–600, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-585-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-585-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The fractions of trace elements in atmospheric particles that are soluble have been measured over the Mediterranean and Black seas. These soluble fractions can affect the growth of microorganisms in the ocean, and our results show that they are affected by mixing with pollutants from the surrounding land and shipping emissions. Atmospheric particles contribute to the loads of soluble elements found in the surface waters and influence the balance between nitrogen and phosphorus.
Sankirna D. Joge, Anoop S. Mahajan, Shrivardhan Hulswar, Christa A. Marandino, Martí Galí, Thomas G. Bell, and Rafel Simó
Biogeosciences, 21, 4439–4452, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4439-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4439-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is the largest natural source of sulfur in the atmosphere and leads to the formation of cloud condensation nuclei. DMS emission and quantification of its impacts have large uncertainties, but a detailed study on the emissions and drivers of their uncertainty is missing to date. The emissions are usually calculated from the seawater DMS concentrations and a flux parameterization. Here we quantify the differences in DMS seawater products, which can affect DMS fluxes.
Sankirna D. Joge, Anoop S. Mahajan, Shrivardhan Hulswar, Christa A. Marandino, Martí Galí, Thomas G. Bell, Mingxi Yang, and Rafel Simó
Biogeosciences, 21, 4453–4467, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4453-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4453-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is the largest natural source of sulfur in the atmosphere and leads to the formation of cloud condensation nuclei. DMS emissions and quantification of their impacts have large uncertainties, but a detailed study on the range of emissions and drivers of their uncertainty is missing to date. The emissions are calculated from the seawater DMS concentrations and a flux parameterization. Here we quantify the differences in the effect of flux parameterizations used in models.
A. Whitman Miller, Jim R. Muirhead, Amanda C. Reynolds, Mark S. Minton, and Karl J. Klug
Biogeosciences, 21, 3717–3734, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3717-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3717-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
High frequency pCO2 measurements reveal net neutral CO2 flux in a mesohaline reach of the Chesapeake Bay. Net off-gassing to the atmosphere begins in June when water temperatures rise above ~26ºC, continuing through November when temperatures fall below ~10ºC. Dissolved CO2 concentrations follow day–night cycles and are especially pronounced in warm waters. From December through May, the river is largely an uninterrupted sink for CO2 (i.e. CO2 is drawn out of the atmosphere into the river).
Young Shin Kwon, Tae Siek Rhee, Hyun-Cheol Kim, and Hyoun-Woo Kang
Biogeosciences, 21, 1847–1865, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1847-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1847-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Delving into CO dynamics from the East Sea to the Bering Sea, our study unveils the influence of physical transport on CO budgets. By measuring CO concentrations and parameters, we elucidate the interplay between biological and physical processes, highlighting the role of lateral transport in shaping CO distributions. Our findings underscore the importance of considering both biogeochemical and physical drivers in understanding marine carbon fluxes.
John Prytherch, Sonja Murto, Ian Brown, Adam Ulfsbo, Brett F. Thornton, Volker Brüchert, Michael Tjernström, Anna Lunde Hermansson, Amanda T. Nylund, and Lina A. Holthusen
Biogeosciences, 21, 671–688, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-671-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-671-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We directly measured methane and carbon dioxide exchange between ocean or sea ice and the atmosphere during an icebreaker-based expedition to the central Arctic Ocean (CAO) in summer 2021. These measurements can help constrain climate models and carbon budgets. The methane measurements, the first such made in the CAO, are lower than previous estimates and imply that the CAO is an insignificant contributor to Arctic methane emission. Gas exchange rates are slower than previous estimates.
Juan Yu, Lei Yu, Zhen He, Gui-Peng Yang, Jing-Guang Lai, and Qian Liu
Biogeosciences, 21, 161–176, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-161-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-161-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The distributions of volatile organic sulfur compounds (VSCs) (DMS, COS, and CS2) in the seawater and atmosphere of the Bohai and Yellow Seas were evaluated. Seasonal variations in VSCs were found and showed summer > spring. The COS concentrations exhibited positive correlation with DOC concentrations in seawater during summer. VSCs concentrations in seawater decreased with the depth. Sea-to-air fluxes of COS, DMS, and CS2 indicated that these marginal seas are sources of atmospheric VSCs.
Patrick J. Duke, Roberta C. Hamme, Debby Ianson, Peter Landschützer, Mohamed M. M. Ahmed, Neil C. Swart, and Paul A. Covert
Biogeosciences, 20, 3919–3941, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3919-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3919-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The ocean is both impacted by climate change and helps mitigate its effects through taking up carbon from the atmosphere. We used a machine learning approach to investigate what controls open-ocean carbon uptake in the northeast Pacific open ocean. Marine heatwaves that lasted 2–3 years increased uptake, while the upwelling strength of the Alaskan Gyre controlled uptake over 10-year time periods. The trend from 1998–2019 suggests carbon uptake in the northeast Pacific open ocean is increasing.
Judith Vogt, David Risk, Evelise Bourlon, Kumiko Azetsu-Scott, Evan N. Edinger, and Owen A. Sherwood
Biogeosciences, 20, 1773–1787, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1773-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1773-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The release of the greenhouse gas methane from Arctic submarine sources could exacerbate climate change in a positive feedback. Continuous monitoring of atmospheric methane levels over a 5100 km voyage in the western margin of the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay revealed above-global averages likely affected by both onshore and offshore methane sources. Instantaneous sea–air methane fluxes were near zero at all measured stations, including a persistent cold-seep location.
George Manville, Thomas G. Bell, Jane P. Mulcahy, Rafel Simó, Martí Galí, Anoop S. Mahajan, Shrivardhan Hulswar, and Paul R. Halloran
Biogeosciences, 20, 1813–1828, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1813-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1813-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present the first global investigation of controls on seawater dimethylsulfide (DMS) spatial variability over scales of up to 100 km. Sea surface height anomalies, density, and chlorophyll a help explain almost 80 % of DMS variability. The results suggest that physical and biogeochemical processes play an equally important role in controlling DMS variability. These data provide independent confirmation that existing parameterisations of seawater DMS concentration use appropriate variables.
Ryo Dobashi and David T. Ho
Biogeosciences, 20, 1075–1087, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1075-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1075-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Seagrass meadows are productive ecosystems and bury much carbon. Understanding their role in the global carbon cycle requires knowledge of air–sea CO2 fluxes and hence the knowledge of gas transfer velocity (k). In this study, k was determined from the dual tracer technique in Florida Bay. The observed gas transfer velocity was lower than previous studies in the coastal and open oceans at the same wind speeds, most likely due to wave attenuation by seagrass and limited wind fetch in this area.
Valérie Gros, Bernard Bonsang, Roland Sarda-Estève, Anna Nikolopoulos, Katja Metfies, Matthias Wietz, and Ilka Peeken
Biogeosciences, 20, 851–867, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-851-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-851-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The oceans are both sources and sinks for trace gases important for atmospheric chemistry and marine ecology. Here, we quantified selected trace gases (including the biological metabolites dissolved dimethyl sulfide, methanethiol and isoprene) along a 2500 km transect from the North Atlantic to the Arctic Ocean. In the context of phytoplankton and bacterial communities, our study suggests that methanethiol (rarely measured before) might substantially influence ocean–atmosphere cycling.
Tsukasa Dobashi, Yuzo Miyazaki, Eri Tachibana, Kazutaka Takahashi, Sachiko Horii, Fuminori Hashihama, Saori Yasui-Tamura, Yoko Iwamoto, Shu-Kuan Wong, and Koji Hamasaki
Biogeosciences, 20, 439–449, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-439-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-439-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Water-soluble organic nitrogen (WSON) in marine aerosols is important for biogeochemical cycling of bioelements. Our shipboard measurements suggested that reactive nitrogen produced and exuded by nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in surface seawater likely contributed to the formation of WSON aerosols in the subtropical North Pacific. This study provides new implications for the role of marine microbial activity in the formation of WSON aerosols in the ocean surface.
Lukas Eickhoff, Maddalena Bayer-Giraldi, Naama Reicher, Yinon Rudich, and Thomas Koop
Biogeosciences, 20, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The formation of ice is an important process in Earth’s atmosphere, biosphere, and cryosphere, in particular in polar regions. Our research focuses on the influence of the sea ice diatom Fragilariopsis cylindrus and of molecules produced by it upon heterogenous ice nucleation. For that purpose, we studied the freezing of tiny droplets containing the diatoms in a microfluidic device. Together with previous studies, our results suggest a common freezing behaviour of various sea ice diatoms.
Li Zhou, Dennis Booge, Miming Zhang, and Christa A. Marandino
Biogeosciences, 19, 5021–5040, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5021-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5021-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Trace gas air–sea exchange exerts an important control on air quality and climate, especially in the Southern Ocean (SO). Almost all of the measurements there are skewed to summer, but it is essential to expand our measurement database over greater temporal and spatial scales. Therefore, we report measured concentrations of dimethylsulfide (DMS, as well as related sulfur compounds) and isoprene in the Atlantic sector of the SO. The observations of isoprene are the first in the winter in the SO.
Theresa Barthelmeß and Anja Engel
Biogeosciences, 19, 4965–4992, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4965-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4965-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Greenhouse gases released by human activity cause a global rise in mean temperatures. While scientists can predict how much of these gases accumulate in the atmosphere based on not only human-derived sources but also oceanic sinks, it is rather difficult to predict the major influence of coastal ecosystems. We provide a detailed study on the occurrence, composition, and controls of substances that suppress gas exchange. We thus help to determine what controls coastal greenhouse gas fluxes.
Daniel J. Ford, Gavin H. Tilstone, Jamie D. Shutler, and Vassilis Kitidis
Biogeosciences, 19, 4287–4304, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4287-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4287-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores the seasonal, inter-annual, and multi-year drivers of the South Atlantic air–sea CO2 flux. Our analysis showed seasonal sea surface temperatures dominate in the subtropics, and the subpolar regions correlated with biological processes. Inter-annually, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation correlated with the CO2 flux by modifying sea surface temperatures and biological activity. Long-term trends indicated an important biological contribution to changes in the air–sea CO2 flux.
Laique M. Djeutchouang, Nicolette Chang, Luke Gregor, Marcello Vichi, and Pedro M. S. Monteiro
Biogeosciences, 19, 4171–4195, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4171-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4171-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Based on observing system simulation experiments using a mesoscale-resolving model, we found that to significantly improve uncertainties and biases in carbon dioxide (CO2) mapping in the Southern Ocean, it is essential to resolve the seasonal cycle (SC) of the meridional gradient of CO2 through high frequency (at least daily) observations that also span the region's meridional axis. We also showed that the estimated SC anomaly and mean annual CO2 are highly sensitive to seasonal sampling biases.
Liliane Merlivat, Michael Hemming, Jacqueline Boutin, David Antoine, Vincenzo Vellucci, Melek Golbol, Gareth A. Lee, and Laurence Beaumont
Biogeosciences, 19, 3911–3920, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3911-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3911-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We use in situ high-temporal-resolution measurements of dissolved inorganic carbon and atmospheric parameters at the air–sea interface to analyse phytoplankton bloom initiation identified as the net rate of biological carbon uptake in the Mediterranean Sea. The shift from wind-driven to buoyancy-driven mixing creates conditions for blooms to begin. Active mixing at the air–sea interface leads to the onset of the surface phytoplankton bloom due to the relaxation of wind speed following storms.
Léa Olivier, Jacqueline Boutin, Gilles Reverdin, Nathalie Lefèvre, Peter Landschützer, Sabrina Speich, Johannes Karstensen, Matthieu Labaste, Christophe Noisel, Markus Ritschel, Tobias Steinhoff, and Rik Wanninkhof
Biogeosciences, 19, 2969–2988, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2969-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2969-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the impact of the interactions between eddies and the Amazon River plume on the CO2 air–sea fluxes to better characterize the ocean carbon sink in winter 2020. The region is a strong CO2 sink, previously underestimated by a factor of 10 due to a lack of data and understanding of the processes responsible for the variability in ocean carbon parameters. The CO2 absorption is mainly driven by freshwater from the Amazon entrained by eddies and by the winter seasonal cooling.
Hana Jurikova, Osamu Abe, Fuh-Kwo Shiah, and Mao-Chang Liang
Biogeosciences, 19, 2043–2058, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2043-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2043-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the isotopic composition of oxygen dissolved in seawater in the South China Sea. This tells us about the origin of oxygen in the water column, distinguishing between biological oxygen produced by phytoplankton communities and atmospheric oxygen entering seawater through gas exchange. We found that the East Asian Monsoon plays an important role in determining the amount of oxygen produced vs. consumed by the phytoplankton, as well as in inducing vertical water mass mixing.
Richard P. Sims, Michael Bedington, Ute Schuster, Andrew J. Watson, Vassilis Kitidis, Ricardo Torres, Helen S. Findlay, James R. Fishwick, Ian Brown, and Thomas G. Bell
Biogeosciences, 19, 1657–1674, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1657-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1657-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) being absorbed by the ocean is relevant to the earth's climate. CO2 values in the coastal ocean and estuaries are not well known because of the instrumentation used. We used a new approach to measure CO2 across the coastal and estuarine zone. We found that CO2 and salinity were linked to the state of the tide. We used our CO2 measurements and model salinity to predict CO2. Previous studies overestimate how much CO2 the coastal ocean draws down at our site.
Thi Tuyet Trang Chau, Marion Gehlen, and Frédéric Chevallier
Biogeosciences, 19, 1087–1109, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1087-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1087-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Air–sea CO2 fluxes and associated uncertainty over the open ocean to coastal shelves are estimated with a new ensemble-based reconstruction of pCO2 trained on observation-based data. The regional distribution and seasonality of CO2 sources and sinks are consistent with those suggested in previous studies as well as mechanisms discussed therein. The ensemble-based uncertainty field allows identifying critical regions where improvements in pCO2 and air–sea CO2 flux estimates should be a priority.
Charel Wohl, Anna E. Jones, William T. Sturges, Philip D. Nightingale, Brent Else, Brian J. Butterworth, and Mingxi Yang
Biogeosciences, 19, 1021–1045, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1021-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1021-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We measured concentrations of five different organic gases in seawater in the high Arctic during summer. We found higher concentrations near the surface of the water column (top 5–10 m) and in areas of partial ice cover. This suggests that sea ice influences the concentrations of these gases. These gases indirectly exert a slight cooling effect on the climate, and it is therefore important to measure the levels accurately for future climate predictions.
Alain de Verneil, Zouhair Lachkar, Shafer Smith, and Marina Lévy
Biogeosciences, 19, 907–929, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-907-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-907-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Arabian Sea is a natural CO2 source to the atmosphere, but previous work highlights discrepancies between data and models in estimating air–sea CO2 flux. In this study, we use a regional ocean model, achieve a flux closer to available data, and break down the seasonal cycles that impact it, with one result being the great importance of monsoon winds. As demonstrated in a meta-analysis, differences from data still remain, highlighting the great need for further regional data collection.
Jesse M. Vance, Kim Currie, John Zeldis, Peter W. Dillingham, and Cliff S. Law
Biogeosciences, 19, 241–269, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-241-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-241-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Long-term monitoring is needed to detect changes in our environment. Time series of ocean carbon have aided our understanding of seasonal cycles and provided evidence for ocean acidification. Data gaps are inevitable, yet no standard method for filling gaps exists. We present a regression approach here and compare it to seven other common methods to understand the impact of different approaches when assessing seasonal to climatic variability in ocean carbon.
Daniel J. Ford, Gavin H. Tilstone, Jamie D. Shutler, and Vassilis Kitidis
Biogeosciences, 19, 93–115, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-93-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-93-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study identifies the most accurate biological proxy for the estimation of seawater pCO2 fields, which are key to assessing the ocean carbon sink. Our analysis shows that the net community production (NCP), the balance between photosynthesis and respiration, was more accurate than chlorophyll a within a neural network scheme. The improved pCO2 estimates, based on NCP, identified the South Atlantic Ocean as a net CO2 source, compared to a CO2 sink using chlorophyll a.
Birthe Zäncker, Michael Cunliffe, and Anja Engel
Biogeosciences, 18, 2107–2118, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2107-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2107-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Fungi are found in numerous marine environments. Our study found an increased importance of fungi in the Ionian Sea, where bacterial and phytoplankton counts were reduced, but organic matter was still available, suggesting fungi might benefit from the reduced competition from bacteria in low-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (LNLC) regions.
Jon Olafsson, Solveig R. Olafsdottir, Taro Takahashi, Magnus Danielsen, and Thorarinn S. Arnarson
Biogeosciences, 18, 1689–1701, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-1689-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-1689-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The Atlantic north of 50° N is an intense ocean sink area for atmospheric CO2. Observations in the vicinity of Iceland reveal a previously unrecognized Arctic contribution to the North Atlantic CO2 sink. Sustained CO2 influx to waters flowing from the Arctic Ocean is linked to their excess alkalinity derived from sources in the changing Arctic. The results relate to the following question: will the North Atlantic continue to absorb CO2 in the future as it has in the past?
Wei-Lei Wang, Guisheng Song, François Primeau, Eric S. Saltzman, Thomas G. Bell, and J. Keith Moore
Biogeosciences, 17, 5335–5354, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5335-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5335-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Dimethyl sulfide, a volatile compound produced as a byproduct of marine phytoplankton activity, can be emitted to the atmosphere via gas exchange. In the atmosphere, DMS is oxidized to cloud condensation nuclei, thus contributing to cloud formation. Therefore, oceanic DMS plays an important role in regulating the planet's climate by influencing the radiation budget. In this study, we use an artificial neural network model to update the global DMS climatology and estimate the sea-to-air flux.
Yuri Galletti, Silvia Becagli, Alcide di Sarra, Margherita Gonnelli, Elvira Pulido-Villena, Damiano M. Sferlazzo, Rita Traversi, Stefano Vestri, and Chiara Santinelli
Biogeosciences, 17, 3669–3684, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3669-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3669-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This paper reports the first data about atmospheric deposition of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the island of Lampedusa. It also shows the implications for the surface marine layer by studying the impact of atmospheric organic carbon deposition in the marine ecosystem. It is a preliminary study, but it is pioneering and important for having new data that can be crucial in order to understand the impact of atmospheric deposition on the marine carbon cycle in a global climate change scenario.
Charel Wohl, Ian Brown, Vassilis Kitidis, Anna E. Jones, William T. Sturges, Philip D. Nightingale, and Mingxi Yang
Biogeosciences, 17, 2593–2619, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2593-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2593-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The oceans represent a poorly understood source of organic carbon to the atmosphere. In this paper, we present ship-based measurements of specific compounds in ambient air and seawater of the Southern Ocean. We present fluxes of these gases between air and sea at very high resolution. The data also contain evidence for day and night variations in some of these compounds. These measurements can be used to better understand the role of the Southern Ocean in the cycling of these compounds.
Rebecca L. Jackson, Albert J. Gabric, Roger Cropp, and Matthew T. Woodhouse
Biogeosciences, 17, 2181–2204, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2181-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2181-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Coral reefs are a strong source of atmospheric sulfur through stress-induced emissions of dimethylsulfide (DMS). This biogenic sulfur can influence aerosol and cloud properties and, consequently, the radiative balance over the ocean. DMS emissions may therefore help to mitigate coral physiological stress via increased low-level cloud cover and reduced sea surface temperature. The importance of DMS in coral physiology and climate is reviewed and the implications for coral bleaching are discussed.
Louise Delaigue, Helmuth Thomas, and Alfonso Mucci
Biogeosciences, 17, 547–566, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-547-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-547-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This paper reports on the first compilation and analysis of the surface water pCO2 distribution in the Saguenay Fjord, the southernmost subarctic fjord in the Northern Hemisphere, and thus fills a significant knowledge gap in current regional estimates of estuarine CO2 emissions.
Tim Fischer, Annette Kock, Damian L. Arévalo-Martínez, Marcus Dengler, Peter Brandt, and Hermann W. Bange
Biogeosciences, 16, 2307–2328, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-2307-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-2307-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated air–sea gas exchange in oceanic upwelling regions for the case of nitrous oxide off Peru. In this region, routine concentration measurements from ships at 5 m or 10 m depth prove to overestimate surface (bulk) concentration. Thus, standard estimates of gas exchange will show systematic error. This is due to very shallow stratified layers that inhibit exchange between surface water and waters below and can exist for several days. Maximum bias occurs in moderate wind conditions.
Mingxi Yang, Thomas G. Bell, Ian J. Brown, James R. Fishwick, Vassilis Kitidis, Philip D. Nightingale, Andrew P. Rees, and Timothy J. Smyth
Biogeosciences, 16, 961–978, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-961-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-961-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We quantify the emissions and uptake of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane from the coastal seas of the UK over 1 year using the state-of-the-art eddy covariance technique. Our measurements show how these air–sea fluxes vary twice a day (tidal), diurnally (circadian) and seasonally. We also estimate the air–sea gas transfer velocity, which is essential for modelling and predicting coastal air-sea exchange.
Riley X. Brady, Nicole S. Lovenduski, Michael A. Alexander, Michael Jacox, and Nicolas Gruber
Biogeosciences, 16, 329–346, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-329-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-329-2019, 2019
Stelios Myriokefalitakis, Akinori Ito, Maria Kanakidou, Athanasios Nenes, Maarten C. Krol, Natalie M. Mahowald, Rachel A. Scanza, Douglas S. Hamilton, Matthew S. Johnson, Nicholas Meskhidze, Jasper F. Kok, Cecile Guieu, Alex R. Baker, Timothy D. Jickells, Manmohan M. Sarin, Srinivas Bikkina, Rachel Shelley, Andrew Bowie, Morgane M. G. Perron, and Robert A. Duce
Biogeosciences, 15, 6659–6684, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-6659-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-6659-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The first atmospheric iron (Fe) deposition model intercomparison is presented in this study, as a result of the deliberations of the United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP; http://www.gesamp.org/) Working Group 38. We conclude that model diversity over remote oceans reflects uncertainty in the Fe content parameterizations of dust aerosols, combustion aerosol emissions and the size distribution of transported aerosol Fe.
Liliane Merlivat, Jacqueline Boutin, David Antoine, Laurence Beaumont, Melek Golbol, and Vincenzo Vellucci
Biogeosciences, 15, 5653–5662, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5653-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5653-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The fugacity of carbon dioxide in seawater (fCO2) was measured hourly in the surface waters of the NW Mediterranean Sea during two 3-year sequences separated by 18 years. A decrease of pH of 0.0022 yr−1 was computed. About 85 % of the accumulation of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) comes from chemical equilibration with increasing atmospheric CO2; the remaining 15 % accumulation is consistent with estimates of transfer of Atlantic waters through the Gibraltar Strait.
Amanda R. Fay, Nicole S. Lovenduski, Galen A. McKinley, David R. Munro, Colm Sweeney, Alison R. Gray, Peter Landschützer, Britton B. Stephens, Taro Takahashi, and Nancy Williams
Biogeosciences, 15, 3841–3855, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3841-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3841-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The Southern Ocean is highly under-sampled and since this region dominates the ocean sink for CO2, understanding change is critical. Here we utilize available observations to evaluate how the seasonal cycle, variability, and trends in surface ocean carbon in the well-sampled Drake Passage region compare to that of the broader subpolar Southern Ocean. Results indicate that the Drake Passage is representative of the broader region; however, additional winter observations would improve comparisons.
Cui-Ci Sun, Martin Sperling, and Anja Engel
Biogeosciences, 15, 3577–3589, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3577-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3577-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Biogenic gel particles such as transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) and Coomassie stainable particles (CSP) are important components in the sea-surface microlayer (SML). Their potential role in air–sea gas exchange and in primary organic aerosol emission has generated considerable research interest. Our wind wave channel experiment revealed how wind speed controls the accumulation and size distribution of biogenic gel particles in the SML.
N. Precious Mongwe, Marcello Vichi, and Pedro M. S. Monteiro
Biogeosciences, 15, 2851–2872, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2851-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2851-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Here we analyze seasonal cycle of CO2 biases in 10 CMIP5 models in the SO. We find two main model biases; exaggeration of primary production such that biologically driven DIC changes mainly regulates FCO2 variability, and an overestimation of the role of solubility, such that changes in temperature dominantly drive FCO2 seasonal changes to an extent of opposing biological CO2 uptake in spring. CMIP5 models show greater zonal homogeneity in the seasonal cycle of FCO2 than observational products.
Allison R. Moreno, George I. Hagstrom, Francois W. Primeau, Simon A. Levin, and Adam C. Martiny
Biogeosciences, 15, 2761–2779, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2761-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2761-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
To bridge the missing links between variable marine elemental stoichiometry, phytoplankton physiology and carbon cycling, we embed four environmentally controlled stoichiometric models into a five-box ocean model. As predicted each model varied in its influence on the biological pump. Surprisingly, we found that variation can lead to nonlinear controls on atmospheric CO2 and carbon export, suggesting the need for further studies of ocean C : P and the impact on ocean carbon cycling.
Luke Gregor, Schalk Kok, and Pedro M. S. Monteiro
Biogeosciences, 15, 2361–2378, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2361-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2361-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The Southern Ocean accounts for a large portion of the variability in oceanic CO2 uptake. However, the drivers of these changes are not understood due to a lack of observations. In this study, we used an ensemble of gap-filling methods to estimate surface CO2. We found that winter was a more important driver of longer-term variability driven by changes in wind stress. Summer variability of CO2 was driven primarily by increases in primary production.
Erik T. Buitenhuis, Parvadha Suntharalingam, and Corinne Le Quéré
Biogeosciences, 15, 2161–2175, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2161-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-2161-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Thanks to decreases in CFC concentrations, N2O is now the third-most important greenhouse gas, and the dominant contributor to stratospheric ozone depletion. Here we estimate the ocean–atmosphere N2O flux. We find that an estimate based on observations alone has a large uncertainty. By combining observations and a range of model simulations we find that the uncertainty is much reduced to 2.45 ± 0.8 Tg N yr−1, and better constrained and at the lower end of the estimate in the latest IPCC report.
Cited articles
Andersson, A., Rutgersson, A., and Sahlée, E.: Using eddy covariance to
estimate air–sea gas transfer velocity for oxygen, J. Mar.
Syst., 159, 67–75, 2016. a
Andreas, E., Vlahos, P., and Monahan, E.: The potential role of sea spray
droplets in facilitating air-sea gas transfer, in: IOP conference series:
earth and environmental science, Vol. 35, p. 012003, IOP Publishing, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/35/1/012003, 2016. a, b
Andreas, E. L., Vlahos, P., and Monahan, E. C.: Spray-mediated air-sea gas
exchange: the governing time scales, Journal of Marine Science and
Engineering, 5, 60, 2017. a
Ashton, I. G., Shutler, J. D., Land, P. E., Woolf, D. K., and Quartly, G. D.: A
sensitivity analysis of the impact of rain on regional and global sea–air
fluxes of CO2, PloS one, 11, e0161105,
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161105, 2016. a, b
Aubinet, M., Vesala, T., and Papale, D.: Eddy covariance: a practical guide to
measurement and data analysis, Springer Science & Business Media, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2351-1, 2012. a, b
Baldocchi, D. D., Hincks, B. B., and Meyers, T. P.: Measuring
biosphere–atmosphere exchanges of biologically related gases with
micrometeorological methods, Ecology, 69, 1331–1340, 1988. a
Barua, D. K.: Beaufort wind scale, Encyclopedia of Coastal Science, Dordrecht,
Springer Netherlands, 2005. a
Bell, T. G., Landwehr, S., Miller, S. D., de Bruyn, W. J., Callaghan, A. H., Scanlon, B., Ward, B., Yang, M., and Saltzman, E. S.: Estimation of bubble-mediated air–sea gas exchange from concurrent DMS and CO2 transfer velocities at intermediate–high wind speeds, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 9019–9033, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-9019-2017, 2017. a, b
Blomquist, B. W,, Brumer, S. E., Fairall, C. W., Huebert, B. J., Zappa, C. J., Brooks, I. M.,
Yang, M., Bariteau, L., Prytherch, J., Hare, J. E., Czerski, H., Matei, A., and
Pascal, R. W.: Wind speed and sea
state dependencies of air–sea gas transfer: Results from the High Wind speed
Gas exchange Study (HiWinGS), J. Geophys. Res.-Ocean., 122,
8034–8062, 2017. a, b
Borges, A. V., Delille, B., and Frankignoulle, M.: Budgeting sinks and sources
of CO2 in the coastal ocean: Diversity of ecosystems count,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14601, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023053, 2005. a
Brumer, S. E., Zappa, C. J., Blomquist, B. W., Fairall, C. W.,
Cifuentes-Lorenzen, A., Edson, J. B., Brooks, I. M., and Huebert, B. J.:
Wave-related Reynolds number parameterizations of CO2 and DMS
transfer velocities, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 9865–9875, 2017. a
Chen, C.-T. A., Huang, T.-H., Chen, Y.-C., Bai, Y., He, X., and Kang, Y.: Air–sea exchanges of CO2 in the world's coastal seas, Biogeosciences, 10, 6509–6544, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-6509-2013, 2013. a
Ciais, P., Sabine, C., Bala, G., Bopp, L., Brovkin, V., Canadell, J., Chhabra,
A., DeFries, R., Galloway, J., Heimann, M., et al.: Carbon and other
biogeochemical cycles, in: Climate change 2013: the physical science basis.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Stocker, T., Qin, D.,
Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y.,
Bex, V., and Midgley, P., 465–570, Cambridge University Press, 2013. a
Dong, Y., Yang, M., Bakker, D. C. E., Kitidis, V., and Bell, T. G.: Uncertainties in eddy covariance air–sea CO2 flux measurements and implications for gas transfer velocity parameterisations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 8089–8110, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8089-2021, 2021. a, b, c, d
Friedlingstein, P., Jones, M. W., O'Sullivan, M., Andrew, R. M., Bakker, D. C. E., Hauck, J., Le Quéré, C., Peters, G. P., Peters, W., Pongratz, J., Sitch, S., Canadell, J. G., Ciais, P., Jackson, R. B., Alin, S. R., Anthoni, P., Bates, N. R., Becker, M., Bellouin, N., Bopp, L., Chau, T. T. T., Chevallier, F., Chini, L. P., Cronin, M., Currie, K. I., Decharme, B., Djeutchouang, L. M., Dou, X., Evans, W., Feely, R. A., Feng, L., Gasser, T., Gilfillan, D., Gkritzalis, T., Grassi, G., Gregor, L., Gruber, N., Gürses, Ö., Harris, I., Houghton, R. A., Hurtt, G. C., Iida, Y., Ilyina, T., Luijkx, I. T., Jain, A., Jones, S. D., Kato, E., Kennedy, D., Klein Goldewijk, K., Knauer, J., Korsbakken, J. I., Körtzinger, A., Landschützer, P., Lauvset, S. K., Lefèvre, N., Lienert, S., Liu, J., Marland, G., McGuire, P. C., Melton, J. R., Munro, D. R., Nabel, J. E. M. S., Nakaoka, S.-I., Niwa, Y., Ono, T., Pierrot, D., Poulter, B., Rehder, G., Resplandy, L., Robertson, E., Rödenbeck, C., Rosan, T. M., Schwinger, J., Schwingshackl, C., Séférian, R., Sutton, A. J., Sweeney, C., Tanhua, T., Tans, P. P., Tian, H., Tilbrook, B., Tubiello, F., van der Werf, G. R., Vuichard, N., Wada, C., Wanninkhof, R., Watson, A. J., Willis, D., Wiltshire, A. J., Yuan, W., Yue, C., Yue, X., Zaehle, S., and Zeng, J.: Global Carbon Budget 2021, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1917–2005, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1917-2022, 2022. a, b
Gutiérrez-Loza, L., Ocampo-Torres, F. J., and García-Nava, H.: The
Effect of Breaking Waves on CO2 Air–Sea Fluxes in the Coastal Zone,
Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 168, 343–360, 2018. a
Gutiérrez-Loza, L., Wallin, M. B., Sahlée, E., Nilsson, E., Bange,
H. W., Kock, A., and Rutgersson, A.: Measurement of air-sea methane fluxes in
the Baltic Sea using the eddy covariance method, Front. Earth
Sci., 7, 93, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00093, 2019. a
Gutiérrez-Loza, L., Wallin, M. B., Sahlée, E., Holding, T., Shutler,
J. D., Rehder, G., and Rutgersson, A.: Air–sea CO2 exchange in the Baltic
Sea – A sensitivity analysis of the gas transfer velocity, J. Mar.
Syst., 222, 103603, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2021.103603, 2021. a, b
Ho, D. T., Law, C. S., Smith, M. J., Schlosser, P., Harvey, M., and Hill, P.:
Measurements of air–sea gas exchange at high wind speeds in the Southern
Ocean: Implications for global parameterizations, Geophys. Res.
Lett., 33, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026817, 2006. a
Honkanen, M., Müller, J. D., Seppälä, J., Rehder, G., Kielosto, S., Ylöstalo, P., Mäkelä, T., Hatakka, J., and Laakso, L.: The diurnal cycle of pCO2 in the coastal region of the Baltic Sea, Ocean Sci., 17, 1657–1675, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1657-2021, 2021. a
Jacobs, E., Bittig, H. C., Gräwe, U., Graves, C. A., Glockzin, M., Müller, J. D., Schneider, B., and Rehder, G.: Upwelling-induced trace gas dynamics in the Baltic Sea inferred from 8 years of autonomous measurements on a ship of opportunity, Biogeosciences, 18, 2679–2709, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2679-2021, 2021. a
Jeffery, C., Woolf, D., Robinson, I., and Donlon, C.: One-dimensional modelling
of convective CO2 exchange in the Tropical Atlantic, Ocean Modell.,
19, 161–182, 2007. a
Jessup, A., Zappa, C. J., and Yeh, H.: Defining and quantifying microscale wave
breaking with infrared imagery, J. Geophys. Res.-Ocean., 102,
23145–23153, 1997. a
Kaimal, J. C. and Finnigan, J. J.: Atmospheric boundary layer flows: their
structure and measurement, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 0-19-506239-6, 1994. a
Kljun, N., Calanca, P., Rotach, M. W., and Schmid, H. P.: A simple two-dimensional parameterisation for Flux Footprint Prediction (FFP), Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 3695–3713, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-3695-2015, 2015. a, b
Kormann, R. and Meixner, F. X.: An analytical footprint model for non-neutral
stratification, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 99, 207–224, 2001. a
Kuliński, K. and Pempkowiak, J.: The carbon budget of the Baltic Sea, Biogeosciences, 8, 3219–3230, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-8-3219-2011, 2011. a, b
Kuliński, K., Rehder, G., Asmala, E., Bartosova, A., Carstensen, J., Gustafsson, B., Hall, P. O. J., Humborg, C., Jilbert, T., Jürgens, K., Meier, H. E. M., Müller-Karulis, B., Naumann, M., Olesen, J. E., Savchuk, O., Schramm, A., Slomp, C. P., Sofiev, M., Sobek, A., Szymczycha, B., and Undeman, E.: Biogeochemical functioning of the Baltic Sea, Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 633–685, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-633-2022, 2022. a
Laruelle, G. G., Dürr, H. H., Slomp, C. P., and Borges, A. V.: Evaluation
of sinks and sources of CO2 in the global coastal ocean using a
spatially-explicit typology of estuaries and continental shelves, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 37, L15607,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL043691, 2010. a
Laruelle, G. G., Lauerwald, R., Pfeil, B., and Regnier, P.: Regionalized global
budget of the CO2 exchange at the air-water interface in continental
shelf seas, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 28, 1199–1214, 2014. a
Lehmann, A., Myrberg, K., and Höflich, K.: A statistical approach to
coastal upwelling in the Baltic Sea based on the analysis of satellite data
for 1990–2009, Oceanologia, 54, 369–393, 2012. a
Leighton, T. G., Coles, D. G., Srokosz, M., White, P. R., and Woolf, D. K.:
Asymmetric transfer of CO2 across a broken sea surface, Sci.
Rep., 8, 1–9, 2018. a
Löffler, A., Schneider, B., Perttilä, M., and Rehder, G.: Air–sea
CO2 exchange in the Gulf of Bothnia, Baltic Sea, Cont. Shelf
Res., 37, 46–56, 2012. a
Miller, S. D., Marandino, C., and Saltzman, E. S.: Ship-based measurement of
air-sea CO2 exchange by eddy covariance, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D02304,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD012193, 2010. a
Nightingale, P. D., Malin, G., Law, C. S., Watson, A. J., Liss, P. S.,
Liddicoat, M. I., Boutin, J., and Upstill-Goddard, R. C.: In situ evaluation
of air–sea gas exchange parameterizations using novel conservative and
volatile tracers, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 14, 373–387, 2000. a
Nilsson, E., Bergström, H., Rutgersson, A., Podgrajsek, E., Wallin, M. B.,
Bergström, G., Dellwik, E., Landwehr, S., and Ward, B.: Evaluating
humidity and sea salt disturbances on CO2 flux measurements, J.
Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 35, 859–875, 2018. a
Norman, M., Parampil, S. R., Rutgersson, A., and Sahlée, E.: Influence of
coastal upwelling on the air–sea gas exchange of CO2 in a Baltic Sea
Basin, Tellus B, 65, 21831, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v65i0.21831,
2013a. a, b
IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Core Writing Team, edited by: Pachauri, R. K. and Meyer, L. A., IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp., 2014. a
Parard, G., Rutgersson, A., Raj Parampil, S., and Charantonis, A. A.: The potential of using remote sensing data to estimate air–sea CO2 exchange in the Baltic Sea, Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 1093–1106, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-1093-2017, 2017. a
Reusch, T. B. H., Dierking, J., Andersson, H. C., et al.: The Baltic Sea as a time machine for the future coastal ocean,
Sci. Adv., 4, eaar819,
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aar8195, 2018. a
Ribas-Ribas, M., Helleis, F., Rahlff, J., and Wurl, O.: Air–Sea CO2
exchange in a large annular wind-wave tank and the effects of surfactants,
Front. Mar. Sci., 457, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00457, 2018. a, b
Roobaert, A., Laruelle, G. G., Landschützer, P., Gruber, N., Chou, L., and
Regnier, P.: The Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the Sources and Sinks of CO2
in the Global Coastal Ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 33, 1693–1714,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GB006239, 2019. a
Rutgersson, A., Smedman, A.-S., and Omstedt, A.: Measured and simulated latent
and sensible heat fluxes at two marine sites in the Baltic Sea,
Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 99, 53–84, 2001. a
Rutgersson, A., Norman, M., and Åström, G.: Atmospheric CO2
variation over the Baltic Sea and the impact on air–sea exchange, Boreal
Environ. Res., 14, 238–249, 2009. a
Rutgersson, A., Smedman, A., and Sahlée, E.: Oceanic convective mixing and
the impact on air–sea gas transfer velocity, Geophys. Res. Lett.,
38, L02602,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL045581, 2011. a
Schneider, B. and Müller, J. D.: Biogeochemical transformations in the
Baltic Sea, Springer, ISBN: 978-3-319-61699-5, 2018. a
Schneider, B., Gülzow, W., Sadkowiak, B., and Rehder, G.: Detecting sinks
and sources of CO2 and CH4 by ferrybox-based measurements in the
Baltic Sea: Three case studies, J. Mar. Syst., 140, 13–25,
2014. a
Smedman, A.-S., Högström, U., Bergström, H., Rutgersson, A., Kahma,
K. K., and Pettersson, H.: A case study of air–sea interaction during swell
conditions, J. Geophys. Res.-Ocean., 104, 25833–25851,
1999. a
Soloviev, A. and Lukas, R.: The near-surface layer of the ocean: structure,
dynamics and applications, Vol. 48, Springer Science & Business Media, Springer,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7621-0, 2013. a
Soomere, T.: Numerical simulations of wave climate in the Baltic Sea: a review,
Oceanologia, 2022. a
Stokes, G. G.: Supplement to a paper on the theory of oscillatory waves,
Mathemat. Phys. Papers, 1, 18, Cambridge University Press, 1880. a
Thomas, H. and Schneider, B.: The seasonal cycle of carbon dioxide in Baltic
Sea surface waters, J. Mar. Syst., 22, 53–67,
1999a. a
Thomas, H. and Schneider, B.: The seasonal cycle of carbon dioxide in Baltic
Sea surface waters, J. Mar. Syst., 22, 53–67,
1999b. a
Thomas, H., Pempkowiak, J., Wulff, F., and Nagel, K.: The Baltic Sea, in:
Carbon and nutrient fluxes in continental margins, 334–346, edited by: Liu, K.-K., Atkinson, L., Quiñones, R., and. Talaue-McManus, L., Springer Science and Business Media, ISBN: 978-3-540-92734-1,
2010. a
Thorpe, S., Osborn, T., Farmer, D., and Vagle, S.: Bubble clouds and Langmuir
circulation: Observations and models, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 33,
2013–2031, 2003. a
Upstill-Goddard, R. C.: Air–sea gas exchange in the coastal zone, Estuarine,
Coast. Shelf Sci., 70, 388–404, 2006. a
Van Dam, B. R., Lopes, C. C., Polsenaere, P., Price, R. M., Rutgersson, A., and
Fourqurean, J. W.: Water temperature control on CO2 flux and evaporation
over a subtropical seagrass meadow revealed by atmospheric eddy covariance,
Limnol. Oceanogr., 66, 510–527, 2021. a
Von Schuckmann, K., Le Traon, P.-Y., Alvarez-Fanjul, E., Axell, L., Balmaseda,
M., Breivik, L.-A., Brewin, R. J. W., Bricaud, C., Drevillon, M., Drillet,
Y., et al.: The copernicus marine environment monitoring service ocean state
report, J. Operat. Oceanogr., 9, s235–s320, https://doi.org/10.1080/1755876X.2016.1273446, 2016. a
Wanninkhof, R. and McGillis, W. R.: A cubic relationship between air–sea
CO2 exchange and wind speed, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26,
1889–1892, 1999. a
Webb, E. K., Pearman, G. I., and Leuning, R.: Correction of flux measurements
for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer, Quarterly J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 106, 85–100, 1980. a
Weiss, R.: Carbon dioxide in water and seawater: the solubility of a non-ideal
gas, Mar. Chem., 2, 203–215, 1974. a
Woolf, D. K.: Bubbles and the air-sea transfer velocity of gases,
Atmos.-Ocean, 31, 517–540, 1993. a
Woolf, D. K., Shutler, J. D., Goddijn-Murphy, L., Watson, A. J., Chapron, B.,
Nightingale, P. D., Donlon, C. J., Piskozub, J., Yelland, M. J., Ashton, I., Holding, T., Schuster, U., Girard‐Ardhuin, F., Grouazel, A., Piolle, J.‐F., Warren, M., Wrobel‐Niedzwiecka, I., Land, P. E., Torres, R., Prytherch, J., Moat, B., Hanafin, J., Ardhuin, F., and Paul, F.: Key uncertainties in the recent air–sea flux of CO2, Global
Biogeochem. Cy., 33, 1548–1563,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GB006041, 2019.
a
Zhao, D., Toba, Y., Suzuki, Y., and Komori, S.: Effect of wind waves on
air–sea gas exchange: Proposal of an overall CO2 transfer velocity
formula as a function of breaking-wave parameter, Tellus B, 55, 478–487, 2003. a
Short summary
The exchange of CO2 between the ocean and the atmosphere is an essential aspect of the global carbon cycle and is highly relevant for the Earth's climate. In this study, we used 9 years of in situ measurements to evaluate the temporal variability in the air–sea CO2 fluxes in the Baltic Sea. Furthermore, using this long record, we assessed the effect of atmospheric and water-side mechanisms controlling the efficiency of the air–sea CO2 exchange under different wind-speed conditions.
The exchange of CO2 between the ocean and the atmosphere is an essential aspect of the global...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint