Articles | Volume 11, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-735-2014
© Author(s) 2014. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-735-2014
© Author(s) 2014. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
06 Feb 2014
Research article |
| 06 Feb 2014
Can seasonal and interannual variation in landscape CO2 fluxes be detected by atmospheric observations of CO2 concentrations made at a tall tower?
T. L. Smallman
School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
National Centre for Earth Observation, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
M. Williams
School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
National Centre for Earth Observation, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
J. B. Moncrieff
School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
Related authors
Liang Feng, Paul Palmer, Luke Smallman, Jingfeng Xiao, Paulo Cristofanelli, Ove Hermansen, John Lee, Casper Labuschagne, Simonetta Montaguti, Steffen Noe, Stephen Platt, Xinrong Ren, Martin Steinbacher, and Irene Xueref-Remy
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1793, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1793, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
2023 saw an unexpectedly high global atmospheric CO2 growth. Satellite data reveal a role for increased emissions over the tropics. Larger emissions over eastern Brazil can be explained by warmer temperatures, while changes in rainfall and soil moisture play more of a role in emission increases elsewhere in the tropics.
Wolfgang Knorr, Matthew Williams, Tea Thum, Thomas Kaminski, Michael Voßbeck, Marko Scholze, Tristan Quaife, T. Luke Smallman, Susan C. Steele-Dunne, Mariette Vreugdenhil, Tim Green, Sönke Zaehle, Mika Aurela, Alexandre Bouvet, Emanuel Bueechi, Wouter Dorigo, Tarek S. El-Madany, Mirco Migliavacca, Marika Honkanen, Yann H. Kerr, Anna Kontu, Juha Lemmetyinen, Hannakaisa Lindqvist, Arnaud Mialon, Tuuli Miinalainen, Gaétan Pique, Amanda Ojasalo, Shaun Quegan, Peter J. Rayner, Pablo Reyes-Muñoz, Nemesio Rodríguez-Fernández, Mike Schwank, Jochem Verrelst, Songyan Zhu, Dirk Schüttemeyer, and Matthias Drusch
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 2137–2159, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2137-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2137-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
When it comes to climate change, the land surface is where the vast majority of impacts happen. The task of monitoring those impacts across the globe is formidable and must necessarily rely on satellites – at a significant cost: the measurements are only indirect and require comprehensive physical understanding. We have created a comprehensive modelling system that we offer to the research community to explore how satellite data can be better exploited to help us capture the changes that happen on our lands.
Mathew Williams, David T. Milodowski, T. Luke Smallman, Kyle G. Dexter, Gabi C. Hegerl, Iain M. McNicol, Michael O'Sullivan, Carla M. Roesch, Casey M. Ryan, Stephen Sitch, and Aude Valade
Biogeosciences, 22, 1597–1614, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1597-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1597-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Southern African woodlands are important in both regional and global carbon cycles. A new carbon analysis created by combining satellite data with ecosystem modelling shows that the region has a neutral C balance overall but with important spatial variations. Patterns of biomass and C balance across the region are the outcome of climate controls on production and vegetation–fire interactions, which determine the mortality of vegetation and spatial variations in vegetation function.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, Corinne Le Quéré, Hongmei Li, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Are Olsen, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Almut Arneth, Vivek Arora, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Carla F. Berghoff, Henry C. Bittig, Laurent Bopp, Patricia Cadule, Katie Campbell, Matthew A. Chamberlain, Naveen Chandra, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Thomas Colligan, Jeanne Decayeux, Laique M. Djeutchouang, Xinyu Dou, Carolina Duran Rojas, Kazutaka Enyo, Wiley Evans, Amanda R. Fay, Richard A. Feely, Daniel J. Ford, Adrianna Foster, Thomas Gasser, Marion Gehlen, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Jens Heinke, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Andrew R. Jacobson, Atul K. Jain, Tereza Jarníková, Annika Jersild, Fei Jiang, Zhe Jin, Etsushi Kato, Ralph F. Keeling, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Xin Lan, Siv K. Lauvset, Nathalie Lefèvre, Zhu Liu, Junjie Liu, Lei Ma, Shamil Maksyutov, Gregg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Patrick C. McGuire, Nicolas Metzl, Natalie M. Monacci, Eric J. Morgan, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Craig Neill, Yosuke Niwa, Tobias Nützel, Lea Olivier, Tsuneo Ono, Paul I. Palmer, Denis Pierrot, Zhangcai Qin, Laure Resplandy, Alizée Roobaert, Thais M. Rosan, Christian Rödenbeck, Jörg Schwinger, T. Luke Smallman, Stephen M. Smith, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Tobias Steinhoff, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Roland Séférian, Shintaro Takao, Hiroaki Tatebe, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Olivier Torres, Etienne Tourigny, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido van der Werf, Rik Wanninkhof, Xuhui Wang, Dongxu Yang, Xiaojuan Yang, Zhen Yu, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Ning Zeng, and Jiye Zeng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 965–1039, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2024 describes the methodology, main results, and datasets used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land ecosystems, and the ocean over the historical period (1750–2024). These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, Corinne Le Quéré, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Peter Anthoni, Leticia Barbero, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Bertrand Decharme, Laurent Bopp, Ida Bagus Mandhara Brasika, Patricia Cadule, Matthew A. Chamberlain, Naveen Chandra, Thi-Tuyet-Trang Chau, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Margot Cronin, Xinyu Dou, Kazutaka Enyo, Wiley Evans, Stefanie Falk, Richard A. Feely, Liang Feng, Daniel J. Ford, Thomas Gasser, Josefine Ghattas, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Jens Heinke, Richard A. Houghton, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Andrew R. Jacobson, Atul Jain, Tereza Jarníková, Annika Jersild, Fei Jiang, Zhe Jin, Fortunat Joos, Etsushi Kato, Ralph F. Keeling, Daniel Kennedy, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Arne Körtzinger, Xin Lan, Nathalie Lefèvre, Hongmei Li, Junjie Liu, Zhiqiang Liu, Lei Ma, Greg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Patrick C. McGuire, Galen A. McKinley, Gesa Meyer, Eric J. Morgan, David R. Munro, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Kevin M. O'Brien, Are Olsen, Abdirahman M. Omar, Tsuneo Ono, Melf Paulsen, Denis Pierrot, Katie Pocock, Benjamin Poulter, Carter M. Powis, Gregor Rehder, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Thais M. Rosan, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, T. Luke Smallman, Stephen M. Smith, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Colm Sweeney, Shintaro Takao, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido R. van der Werf, Erik van Ooijen, Rik Wanninkhof, Michio Watanabe, Cathy Wimart-Rousseau, Dongxu Yang, Xiaojuan Yang, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Jiye Zeng, and Bo Zheng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5301–5369, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2023 describes the methodology, main results, and data sets used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land ecosystems, and the ocean over the historical period (1750–2023). These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Luana S. Basso, Chris Wilson, Martyn P. Chipperfield, Graciela Tejada, Henrique L. G. Cassol, Egídio Arai, Mathew Williams, T. Luke Smallman, Wouter Peters, Stijn Naus, John B. Miller, and Manuel Gloor
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 9685–9723, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9685-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9685-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Amazon’s carbon balance may have changed due to forest degradation, deforestation and warmer climate. We used an atmospheric model and atmospheric CO2 observations to quantify Amazonian carbon emissions (2010–2018). The region was a small carbon source to the atmosphere, mostly due to fire emissions. Forest uptake compensated for ~ 50 % of the fire emissions, meaning that the remaining forest is still a small carbon sink. We found no clear evidence of weakening carbon uptake over the period.
David T. Milodowski, T. Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Biogeosciences, 20, 3301–3327, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3301-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3301-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Model–data fusion (MDF) allows us to combine ecosystem models with Earth observation data. Fragmented landscapes, with a mosaic of contrasting ecosystems, pose a challenge for MDF. We develop a novel MDF framework to estimate the carbon balance of fragmented landscapes and show the importance of accounting for ecosystem heterogeneity to prevent scale-dependent bias in estimated carbon fluxes, disturbance fluxes in particular, and to improve ecological fidelity of the calibrated models.
Alexander J. Norton, A. Anthony Bloom, Nicholas C. Parazoo, Paul A. Levine, Shuang Ma, Renato K. Braghiere, and T. Luke Smallman
Biogeosciences, 20, 2455–2484, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2455-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2455-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores how the representation of leaf phenology affects our ability to predict changes to the carbon balance of land ecosystems. We calibrate a new leaf phenology model against a diverse range of observations at six forest sites, showing that it improves the predictive capability of the processes underlying the ecosystem carbon balance. We then show how changes in temperature and rainfall affect the ecosystem carbon balance with this new model.
Vasileios Myrgiotis, Thomas Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Biogeosciences, 19, 4147–4170, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4147-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4147-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study shows that livestock grazing and grass cutting can determine whether a grassland is adding (source) or removing (sink) carbon (C) to/from the atmosphere. The annual C balance of 1855 managed grassland fields in Great Britain was quantified for 2017–2018 using process modelling and earth observation data. The examined fields were, on average, small C sinks, but the summer drought of 2018 led to a 9-fold increase in the number of fields that became C sources in 2018 compared to 2017.
Yan Yang, A. Anthony Bloom, Shuang Ma, Paul Levine, Alexander Norton, Nicholas C. Parazoo, John T. Reager, John Worden, Gregory R. Quetin, T. Luke Smallman, Mathew Williams, Liang Xu, and Sassan Saatchi
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 1789–1802, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-1789-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-1789-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Global carbon and water have large uncertainties that are hard to quantify in current regional and global models. Field observations provide opportunities for better calibration and validation of current modeling of carbon and water. With the unique structure of CARDAMOM, we have utilized the data assimilation capability and designed the benchmarking framework by using field observations in modeling. Results show that data assimilation improves model performance in different aspects.
Thomas Luke Smallman, David Thomas Milodowski, Eráclito Sousa Neto, Gerbrand Koren, Jean Ometto, and Mathew Williams
Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 1191–1237, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-1191-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-1191-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Our study provides a novel assessment of model parameter, structure and climate change scenario uncertainty contribution to future predictions of the Brazilian terrestrial carbon stocks to 2100. We calibrated (2001–2017) five models of the terrestrial C cycle of varied structure. The calibrated models were then projected to 2100 under multiple climate change scenarios. Parameter uncertainty dominates overall uncertainty, being ~ 40 times that of either model structure or climate change scenario.
Caroline A. Famiglietti, T. Luke Smallman, Paul A. Levine, Sophie Flack-Prain, Gregory R. Quetin, Victoria Meyer, Nicholas C. Parazoo, Stephanie G. Stettz, Yan Yang, Damien Bonal, A. Anthony Bloom, Mathew Williams, and Alexandra G. Konings
Biogeosciences, 18, 2727–2754, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2727-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2727-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Model uncertainty dominates the spread in terrestrial carbon cycle predictions. Efforts to reduce it typically involve adding processes, thereby increasing model complexity. However, if and how model performance scales with complexity is unclear. Using a suite of 16 structurally distinct carbon cycle models, we find that increased complexity only improves skill if parameters are adequately informed. Otherwise, it can degrade skill, and an intermediate-complexity model is optimal.
A. Anthony Bloom, Kevin W. Bowman, Junjie Liu, Alexandra G. Konings, John R. Worden, Nicholas C. Parazoo, Victoria Meyer, John T. Reager, Helen M. Worden, Zhe Jiang, Gregory R. Quetin, T. Luke Smallman, Jean-François Exbrayat, Yi Yin, Sassan S. Saatchi, Mathew Williams, and David S. Schimel
Biogeosciences, 17, 6393–6422, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6393-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6393-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We use a model of the 2001–2015 tropical land carbon cycle, with satellite measurements of land and atmospheric carbon, to disentangle lagged and concurrent effects (due to past and concurrent meteorological events, respectively) on annual land–atmosphere carbon exchanges. The variability of lagged effects explains most 2001–2015 inter-annual carbon flux variations. We conclude that concurrent and lagged effects need to be accurately resolved to better predict the world's land carbon sink.
Sophie Flack-Prain, Patrick Meir, Yadvinder Malhi, Thomas Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Biogeosciences, 16, 4463–4484, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4463-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4463-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Across the Amazon rainforest, trees take in carbon through photosynthesis. However, photosynthesis across the basin is threatened by predicted shifts in rainfall patterns. To unpick how changes in rainfall affect photosynthesis, we use a model which combines climate data with our knowledge of photosynthesis and other plant processes. We find that stomatal constraints are less important, and instead shifts in leaf surface area and leaf properties drive changes in photosynthesis with rainfall.
Thomas Luke Smallman and Mathew Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 12, 2227–2253, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-2227-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-2227-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Photosynthesis and evapotranspiration are processes with global significance for climate, carbon and water cycling. Process-orientated simulation of these processes and their interactions have till now come at high computational cost. Here we present a new coupled model of intermediate complexity operating at orders of magnitude greater speed. Independent evaluation at FLUXNET sites for a single, global parameterization shows good agreement, with a typical R2 value of ~ 0.60.
Anne Sofie Lansø, Thomas Luke Smallman, Jesper Heile Christensen, Mathew Williams, Kim Pilegaard, Lise-Lotte Sørensen, and Camilla Geels
Biogeosciences, 16, 1505–1524, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1505-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1505-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Although coastal regions only amount to 7 % of the global oceans, their contribution to the global oceanic surface exchange of CO2 is much greater. In this study, we gain detailed insight into how these coastal marine fluxes compare to CO2 exchange from coastal land regions. Annually, the coastal marine exchanges are smaller than the total uptake of CO2 from the land surfaces within the study area but comparable in size to terrestrial fluxes from individual land cover classes of the region.
Emily D. White, Matthew Rigby, Mark F. Lunt, T. Luke Smallman, Edward Comyn-Platt, Alistair J. Manning, Anita L. Ganesan, Simon O'Doherty, Ann R. Stavert, Kieran Stanley, Mathew Williams, Peter Levy, Michel Ramonet, Grant L. Forster, Andrew C. Manning, and Paul I. Palmer
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 4345–4365, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-4345-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-4345-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes from the terrestrial biosphere on a national scale is important for evaluating land use strategies to mitigate climate change. We estimate emissions of CO2 from the UK biosphere using atmospheric data in a top-down approach. Our findings show that bottom-up estimates from models of biospheric fluxes overestimate the amount of CO2 uptake in summer. This suggests these models wrongly estimate or omit key processes, e.g. land disturbance due to harvest.
Jean-François Exbrayat, A. Anthony Bloom, Pete Falloon, Akihiko Ito, T. Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Earth Syst. Dynam., 9, 153–165, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-153-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-153-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We use global observations of current terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP) to constrain the uncertainty in large ensemble 21st century projections of NPP under a "business as usual" scenario using a skill-based multi-model averaging technique. Our results show that this procedure helps greatly reduce the uncertainty in global projections of NPP. We also identify regions where uncertainties in models and observations remain too large to confidently conclude a sign of the change of NPP.
T. L. Smallman, J. B. Moncrieff, and M. Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 1079–1093, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1079-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1079-2013, 2013
Liang Feng, Paul Palmer, Luke Smallman, Jingfeng Xiao, Paulo Cristofanelli, Ove Hermansen, John Lee, Casper Labuschagne, Simonetta Montaguti, Steffen Noe, Stephen Platt, Xinrong Ren, Martin Steinbacher, and Irene Xueref-Remy
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1793, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1793, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
2023 saw an unexpectedly high global atmospheric CO2 growth. Satellite data reveal a role for increased emissions over the tropics. Larger emissions over eastern Brazil can be explained by warmer temperatures, while changes in rainfall and soil moisture play more of a role in emission increases elsewhere in the tropics.
Wolfgang Knorr, Matthew Williams, Tea Thum, Thomas Kaminski, Michael Voßbeck, Marko Scholze, Tristan Quaife, T. Luke Smallman, Susan C. Steele-Dunne, Mariette Vreugdenhil, Tim Green, Sönke Zaehle, Mika Aurela, Alexandre Bouvet, Emanuel Bueechi, Wouter Dorigo, Tarek S. El-Madany, Mirco Migliavacca, Marika Honkanen, Yann H. Kerr, Anna Kontu, Juha Lemmetyinen, Hannakaisa Lindqvist, Arnaud Mialon, Tuuli Miinalainen, Gaétan Pique, Amanda Ojasalo, Shaun Quegan, Peter J. Rayner, Pablo Reyes-Muñoz, Nemesio Rodríguez-Fernández, Mike Schwank, Jochem Verrelst, Songyan Zhu, Dirk Schüttemeyer, and Matthias Drusch
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 2137–2159, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2137-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2137-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
When it comes to climate change, the land surface is where the vast majority of impacts happen. The task of monitoring those impacts across the globe is formidable and must necessarily rely on satellites – at a significant cost: the measurements are only indirect and require comprehensive physical understanding. We have created a comprehensive modelling system that we offer to the research community to explore how satellite data can be better exploited to help us capture the changes that happen on our lands.
Mathew Williams, David T. Milodowski, T. Luke Smallman, Kyle G. Dexter, Gabi C. Hegerl, Iain M. McNicol, Michael O'Sullivan, Carla M. Roesch, Casey M. Ryan, Stephen Sitch, and Aude Valade
Biogeosciences, 22, 1597–1614, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1597-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1597-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Southern African woodlands are important in both regional and global carbon cycles. A new carbon analysis created by combining satellite data with ecosystem modelling shows that the region has a neutral C balance overall but with important spatial variations. Patterns of biomass and C balance across the region are the outcome of climate controls on production and vegetation–fire interactions, which determine the mortality of vegetation and spatial variations in vegetation function.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, Corinne Le Quéré, Hongmei Li, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Are Olsen, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Almut Arneth, Vivek Arora, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Carla F. Berghoff, Henry C. Bittig, Laurent Bopp, Patricia Cadule, Katie Campbell, Matthew A. Chamberlain, Naveen Chandra, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Thomas Colligan, Jeanne Decayeux, Laique M. Djeutchouang, Xinyu Dou, Carolina Duran Rojas, Kazutaka Enyo, Wiley Evans, Amanda R. Fay, Richard A. Feely, Daniel J. Ford, Adrianna Foster, Thomas Gasser, Marion Gehlen, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Jens Heinke, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Andrew R. Jacobson, Atul K. Jain, Tereza Jarníková, Annika Jersild, Fei Jiang, Zhe Jin, Etsushi Kato, Ralph F. Keeling, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Xin Lan, Siv K. Lauvset, Nathalie Lefèvre, Zhu Liu, Junjie Liu, Lei Ma, Shamil Maksyutov, Gregg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Patrick C. McGuire, Nicolas Metzl, Natalie M. Monacci, Eric J. Morgan, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Craig Neill, Yosuke Niwa, Tobias Nützel, Lea Olivier, Tsuneo Ono, Paul I. Palmer, Denis Pierrot, Zhangcai Qin, Laure Resplandy, Alizée Roobaert, Thais M. Rosan, Christian Rödenbeck, Jörg Schwinger, T. Luke Smallman, Stephen M. Smith, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Tobias Steinhoff, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Roland Séférian, Shintaro Takao, Hiroaki Tatebe, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Olivier Torres, Etienne Tourigny, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido van der Werf, Rik Wanninkhof, Xuhui Wang, Dongxu Yang, Xiaojuan Yang, Zhen Yu, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Ning Zeng, and Jiye Zeng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 965–1039, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2024 describes the methodology, main results, and datasets used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land ecosystems, and the ocean over the historical period (1750–2024). These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Marcos B. Sanches, Manoel Cardoso, Celso von Randow, Chris Jones, and Mathew Williams
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-942, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-942, 2025
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines South America's role in the global carbon cycle using flux and stock analyses from CMIP6 Earth System Models. We discuss the continent’s relevance, model-observation agreement, and the impacts of dry and wet years on major biomes. Additionally, we assess model results indicating that parts of South America could shift from carbon sinks to emitters, significantly affecting the global carbon balance.
Xiaoran Zhu, Dong Chen, Maruko Kogure, Elizabeth Hoy, Logan T. Berner, Amy L. Breen, Abhishek Chatterjee, Scott J. Davidson, Gerald V. Frost, Teresa N. Hollingsworth, Go Iwahana, Randi R. Jandt, Anja N. Kade, Tatiana V. Loboda, Matt J. Macander, Michelle Mack, Charles E. Miller, Eric A. Miller, Susan M. Natali, Martha K. Raynolds, Adrian V. Rocha, Shiro Tsuyuzaki, Craig E. Tweedie, Donald A. Walker, Mathew Williams, Xin Xu, Yingtong Zhang, Nancy French, and Scott Goetz
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 3687–3703, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-3687-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-3687-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Arctic tundra is experiencing widespread physical and biological changes, largely in response to warming, yet scientific understanding of tundra ecology and change remains limited due to relatively limited accessibility and studies compared to other terrestrial biomes. To support synthesis research and inform future studies, we created the Synthesized Alaskan Tundra Field Dataset (SATFiD), which brings together field datasets and includes vegetation, active-layer, and fire properties.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, Corinne Le Quéré, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Peter Anthoni, Leticia Barbero, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Bertrand Decharme, Laurent Bopp, Ida Bagus Mandhara Brasika, Patricia Cadule, Matthew A. Chamberlain, Naveen Chandra, Thi-Tuyet-Trang Chau, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Margot Cronin, Xinyu Dou, Kazutaka Enyo, Wiley Evans, Stefanie Falk, Richard A. Feely, Liang Feng, Daniel J. Ford, Thomas Gasser, Josefine Ghattas, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Jens Heinke, Richard A. Houghton, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Andrew R. Jacobson, Atul Jain, Tereza Jarníková, Annika Jersild, Fei Jiang, Zhe Jin, Fortunat Joos, Etsushi Kato, Ralph F. Keeling, Daniel Kennedy, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Arne Körtzinger, Xin Lan, Nathalie Lefèvre, Hongmei Li, Junjie Liu, Zhiqiang Liu, Lei Ma, Greg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Patrick C. McGuire, Galen A. McKinley, Gesa Meyer, Eric J. Morgan, David R. Munro, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Kevin M. O'Brien, Are Olsen, Abdirahman M. Omar, Tsuneo Ono, Melf Paulsen, Denis Pierrot, Katie Pocock, Benjamin Poulter, Carter M. Powis, Gregor Rehder, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Thais M. Rosan, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, T. Luke Smallman, Stephen M. Smith, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Colm Sweeney, Shintaro Takao, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido R. van der Werf, Erik van Ooijen, Rik Wanninkhof, Michio Watanabe, Cathy Wimart-Rousseau, Dongxu Yang, Xiaojuan Yang, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Jiye Zeng, and Bo Zheng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5301–5369, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2023 describes the methodology, main results, and data sets used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land ecosystems, and the ocean over the historical period (1750–2023). These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Luana S. Basso, Chris Wilson, Martyn P. Chipperfield, Graciela Tejada, Henrique L. G. Cassol, Egídio Arai, Mathew Williams, T. Luke Smallman, Wouter Peters, Stijn Naus, John B. Miller, and Manuel Gloor
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 9685–9723, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9685-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9685-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Amazon’s carbon balance may have changed due to forest degradation, deforestation and warmer climate. We used an atmospheric model and atmospheric CO2 observations to quantify Amazonian carbon emissions (2010–2018). The region was a small carbon source to the atmosphere, mostly due to fire emissions. Forest uptake compensated for ~ 50 % of the fire emissions, meaning that the remaining forest is still a small carbon sink. We found no clear evidence of weakening carbon uptake over the period.
David T. Milodowski, T. Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Biogeosciences, 20, 3301–3327, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3301-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3301-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Model–data fusion (MDF) allows us to combine ecosystem models with Earth observation data. Fragmented landscapes, with a mosaic of contrasting ecosystems, pose a challenge for MDF. We develop a novel MDF framework to estimate the carbon balance of fragmented landscapes and show the importance of accounting for ecosystem heterogeneity to prevent scale-dependent bias in estimated carbon fluxes, disturbance fluxes in particular, and to improve ecological fidelity of the calibrated models.
Alexander J. Norton, A. Anthony Bloom, Nicholas C. Parazoo, Paul A. Levine, Shuang Ma, Renato K. Braghiere, and T. Luke Smallman
Biogeosciences, 20, 2455–2484, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2455-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2455-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores how the representation of leaf phenology affects our ability to predict changes to the carbon balance of land ecosystems. We calibrate a new leaf phenology model against a diverse range of observations at six forest sites, showing that it improves the predictive capability of the processes underlying the ecosystem carbon balance. We then show how changes in temperature and rainfall affect the ecosystem carbon balance with this new model.
Vasileios Myrgiotis, Thomas Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Biogeosciences, 19, 4147–4170, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4147-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4147-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study shows that livestock grazing and grass cutting can determine whether a grassland is adding (source) or removing (sink) carbon (C) to/from the atmosphere. The annual C balance of 1855 managed grassland fields in Great Britain was quantified for 2017–2018 using process modelling and earth observation data. The examined fields were, on average, small C sinks, but the summer drought of 2018 led to a 9-fold increase in the number of fields that became C sources in 2018 compared to 2017.
Yan Yang, A. Anthony Bloom, Shuang Ma, Paul Levine, Alexander Norton, Nicholas C. Parazoo, John T. Reager, John Worden, Gregory R. Quetin, T. Luke Smallman, Mathew Williams, Liang Xu, and Sassan Saatchi
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 1789–1802, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-1789-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-1789-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Global carbon and water have large uncertainties that are hard to quantify in current regional and global models. Field observations provide opportunities for better calibration and validation of current modeling of carbon and water. With the unique structure of CARDAMOM, we have utilized the data assimilation capability and designed the benchmarking framework by using field observations in modeling. Results show that data assimilation improves model performance in different aspects.
Stephanie G. Stettz, Nicholas C. Parazoo, A. Anthony Bloom, Peter D. Blanken, David R. Bowling, Sean P. Burns, Cédric Bacour, Fabienne Maignan, Brett Raczka, Alexander J. Norton, Ian Baker, Mathew Williams, Mingjie Shi, Yongguang Zhang, and Bo Qiu
Biogeosciences, 19, 541–558, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-541-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-541-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Uncertainty in the response of photosynthesis to temperature poses a major challenge to predicting the response of forests to climate change. In this paper, we study how photosynthesis in a mountainous evergreen forest is limited by temperature. This study highlights that cold temperature is a key factor that controls spring photosynthesis. Including the cold-temperature limitation in an ecosystem model improved its ability to simulate spring photosynthesis.
Thomas Luke Smallman, David Thomas Milodowski, Eráclito Sousa Neto, Gerbrand Koren, Jean Ometto, and Mathew Williams
Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 1191–1237, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-1191-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-1191-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Our study provides a novel assessment of model parameter, structure and climate change scenario uncertainty contribution to future predictions of the Brazilian terrestrial carbon stocks to 2100. We calibrated (2001–2017) five models of the terrestrial C cycle of varied structure. The calibrated models were then projected to 2100 under multiple climate change scenarios. Parameter uncertainty dominates overall uncertainty, being ~ 40 times that of either model structure or climate change scenario.
Caroline A. Famiglietti, T. Luke Smallman, Paul A. Levine, Sophie Flack-Prain, Gregory R. Quetin, Victoria Meyer, Nicholas C. Parazoo, Stephanie G. Stettz, Yan Yang, Damien Bonal, A. Anthony Bloom, Mathew Williams, and Alexandra G. Konings
Biogeosciences, 18, 2727–2754, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2727-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2727-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Model uncertainty dominates the spread in terrestrial carbon cycle predictions. Efforts to reduce it typically involve adding processes, thereby increasing model complexity. However, if and how model performance scales with complexity is unclear. Using a suite of 16 structurally distinct carbon cycle models, we find that increased complexity only improves skill if parameters are adequately informed. Otherwise, it can degrade skill, and an intermediate-complexity model is optimal.
A. Anthony Bloom, Kevin W. Bowman, Junjie Liu, Alexandra G. Konings, John R. Worden, Nicholas C. Parazoo, Victoria Meyer, John T. Reager, Helen M. Worden, Zhe Jiang, Gregory R. Quetin, T. Luke Smallman, Jean-François Exbrayat, Yi Yin, Sassan S. Saatchi, Mathew Williams, and David S. Schimel
Biogeosciences, 17, 6393–6422, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6393-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6393-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We use a model of the 2001–2015 tropical land carbon cycle, with satellite measurements of land and atmospheric carbon, to disentangle lagged and concurrent effects (due to past and concurrent meteorological events, respectively) on annual land–atmosphere carbon exchanges. The variability of lagged effects explains most 2001–2015 inter-annual carbon flux variations. We conclude that concurrent and lagged effects need to be accurately resolved to better predict the world's land carbon sink.
Sophie Flack-Prain, Patrick Meir, Yadvinder Malhi, Thomas Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Biogeosciences, 16, 4463–4484, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4463-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4463-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Across the Amazon rainforest, trees take in carbon through photosynthesis. However, photosynthesis across the basin is threatened by predicted shifts in rainfall patterns. To unpick how changes in rainfall affect photosynthesis, we use a model which combines climate data with our knowledge of photosynthesis and other plant processes. We find that stomatal constraints are less important, and instead shifts in leaf surface area and leaf properties drive changes in photosynthesis with rainfall.
Thomas Luke Smallman and Mathew Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 12, 2227–2253, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-2227-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-2227-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Photosynthesis and evapotranspiration are processes with global significance for climate, carbon and water cycling. Process-orientated simulation of these processes and their interactions have till now come at high computational cost. Here we present a new coupled model of intermediate complexity operating at orders of magnitude greater speed. Independent evaluation at FLUXNET sites for a single, global parameterization shows good agreement, with a typical R2 value of ~ 0.60.
Efrén López-Blanco, Jean-François Exbrayat, Magnus Lund, Torben R. Christensen, Mikkel P. Tamstorf, Darren Slevin, Gustaf Hugelius, Anthony A. Bloom, and Mathew Williams
Earth Syst. Dynam., 10, 233–255, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-10-233-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-10-233-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The terrestrial CO2 exchange in Arctic ecosystems plays an important role in the global carbon cycle and is particularly sensitive to the ongoing warming experienced in recent years. To improve our understanding of the atmosphere–biosphere interplay, we evaluated the state of the terrestrial pan-Arctic carbon cycling using a promising data assimilation system in the first 15 years of the 21st century. This is crucial when it comes to making predictions about the future state of the carbon cycle.
Vasileios Myrgiotis, Mathew Williams, Robert M. Rees, and Cairistiona F. E. Topp
Biogeosciences, 16, 1641–1655, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1641-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1641-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study focuses on a northwestern European cropland region and shows that the type of crop growing on a soil has notable effects on the emission of nitrous oxide (N2O – a greenhouse gas) from that soil. It was found that N2O emissions from soils under oilseed cultivation are significantly higher than soils under cereal cultivation. This variation is mostly explained by the fact that oilseeds require more nitrogen (fertiliser) than cereals, especially at early crop growth stages.
Anne Sofie Lansø, Thomas Luke Smallman, Jesper Heile Christensen, Mathew Williams, Kim Pilegaard, Lise-Lotte Sørensen, and Camilla Geels
Biogeosciences, 16, 1505–1524, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1505-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1505-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Although coastal regions only amount to 7 % of the global oceans, their contribution to the global oceanic surface exchange of CO2 is much greater. In this study, we gain detailed insight into how these coastal marine fluxes compare to CO2 exchange from coastal land regions. Annually, the coastal marine exchanges are smaller than the total uptake of CO2 from the land surfaces within the study area but comparable in size to terrestrial fluxes from individual land cover classes of the region.
Emily D. White, Matthew Rigby, Mark F. Lunt, T. Luke Smallman, Edward Comyn-Platt, Alistair J. Manning, Anita L. Ganesan, Simon O'Doherty, Ann R. Stavert, Kieran Stanley, Mathew Williams, Peter Levy, Michel Ramonet, Grant L. Forster, Andrew C. Manning, and Paul I. Palmer
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 4345–4365, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-4345-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-4345-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes from the terrestrial biosphere on a national scale is important for evaluating land use strategies to mitigate climate change. We estimate emissions of CO2 from the UK biosphere using atmospheric data in a top-down approach. Our findings show that bottom-up estimates from models of biospheric fluxes overestimate the amount of CO2 uptake in summer. This suggests these models wrongly estimate or omit key processes, e.g. land disturbance due to harvest.
Jean-François Exbrayat, A. Anthony Bloom, Pete Falloon, Akihiko Ito, T. Luke Smallman, and Mathew Williams
Earth Syst. Dynam., 9, 153–165, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-153-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-153-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We use global observations of current terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP) to constrain the uncertainty in large ensemble 21st century projections of NPP under a "business as usual" scenario using a skill-based multi-model averaging technique. Our results show that this procedure helps greatly reduce the uncertainty in global projections of NPP. We also identify regions where uncertainties in models and observations remain too large to confidently conclude a sign of the change of NPP.
Rhys Whitley, Jason Beringer, Lindsay B. Hutley, Gabriel Abramowitz, Martin G. De Kauwe, Bradley Evans, Vanessa Haverd, Longhui Li, Caitlin Moore, Youngryel Ryu, Simon Scheiter, Stanislaus J. Schymanski, Benjamin Smith, Ying-Ping Wang, Mathew Williams, and Qiang Yu
Biogeosciences, 14, 4711–4732, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-4711-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-4711-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This paper attempts to review some of the current challenges faced by the modelling community in simulating the behaviour of savanna ecosystems. We provide a particular focus on three dynamic processes (phenology, root-water access, and fire) that are characteristic of savannas, which we believe are not adequately represented in current-generation terrestrial biosphere models. We highlight reasons for these misrepresentations, possible solutions and a future direction for research in this area.
Efrén López-Blanco, Magnus Lund, Mathew Williams, Mikkel P. Tamstorf, Andreas Westergaard-Nielsen, Jean-François Exbrayat, Birger U. Hansen, and Torben R. Christensen
Biogeosciences, 14, 4467–4483, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-4467-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-4467-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
An improvement in our process-based understanding of CO2 exchanges in the Arctic and their climate sensitivity is critical. With continued warming temperatures and longer growing seasons, tundra systems will likely increase rates of C cycling, although shifts in sink strength could take place, challenging the forecast of upcoming C states. In this context, we investigated the functional responses of C exchange to environmental characteristics across 8 consecutive years in West Greenland.
Darren Slevin, Simon F. B. Tett, Jean-François Exbrayat, A. Anthony Bloom, and Mathew Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 2651–2670, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-2651-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-2651-2017, 2017
E. N. Koffi, P. Bergamaschi, U. Karstens, M. Krol, A. Segers, M. Schmidt, I. Levin, A. T. Vermeulen, R. E. Fisher, V. Kazan, H. Klein Baltink, D. Lowry, G. Manca, H. A. J. Meijer, J. Moncrieff, S. Pal, M. Ramonet, H. A. Scheeren, and A. G. Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 3137–3160, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-3137-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-3137-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluate the capability of the TM5 model to reproduce observations of the boundary layer dynamics and the associated variability of trace gases close to the surface, using 222Rn. Focusing on the European scale, we compare the TM5 boundary layer heights with observations from radiosondes, lidar, and ceilometer. Furthermore, we compare TM5 simulations of 222Rn activity concentrations, using a novel, process-based 222Rn flux map over Europe, with 222Rn harmonized measurements from 10 stations.
Rhys Whitley, Jason Beringer, Lindsay B. Hutley, Gab Abramowitz, Martin G. De Kauwe, Remko Duursma, Bradley Evans, Vanessa Haverd, Longhui Li, Youngryel Ryu, Benjamin Smith, Ying-Ping Wang, Mathew Williams, and Qiang Yu
Biogeosciences, 13, 3245–3265, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-3245-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-3245-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we assess how well terrestrial biosphere models perform at predicting water and carbon cycling for savanna ecosystems. We apply our models to five savanna sites in Northern Australia and highlight key causes for model failure. Our assessment of model performance uses a novel benchmarking system that scores a model’s predictive ability based on how well it is utilizing its driving information. On average, we found the models as a group display only moderate levels of performance.
C. Safta, D. M. Ricciuto, K. Sargsyan, B. Debusschere, H. N. Najm, M. Williams, and P. E. Thornton
Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 1899–1918, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-1899-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-1899-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we propose a probabilistic framework for an uncertainty quantification study of a carbon cycle model and focus on the comparison between steady-state and transient
simulation setups. We study model parameters via global sensitivity analysis and employ a Bayesian approach to calibrate these parameters using NEE observations at the Harvard Forest site. The calibration results are then used to assess the predictive skill of the model via posterior predictive checks.
A. L. Ganesan, A. J. Manning, A. Grant, D. Young, D .E. Oram, W. T. Sturges, J. B. Moncrieff, and S. O'Doherty
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 6393–6406, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-6393-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-6393-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
The UK is one of several countries to enact legislation to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. We present top-down emissions of methane and nitrous oxide for the UK and Ireland over 2012-2014. We inferred average UK emissions of 2.09Tg/yr CH4 and 0.101Tg/yr N2O and used sectoral distributions to determine whether these discrepancies can be attributed to specific source sectors. We found the agricultural sector likely to be overestimated in the bottom-up emissions inventories of both gases.
L. Rowland, A. Harper, B. O. Christoffersen, D. R. Galbraith, H. M. A. Imbuzeiro, T. L. Powell, C. Doughty, N. M. Levine, Y. Malhi, S. R. Saleska, P. R. Moorcroft, P. Meir, and M. Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 1097–1110, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-1097-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-1097-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
This study evaluates the capability of five vegetation models to simulate the response of forest productivity to changes in temperature and drought, using data collected from an Amazonian forest. This study concludes that model consistencies in the responses of net canopy carbon production to temperature and precipitation change were the result of inconsistently modelled leaf-scale process responses and substantial variation in modelled leaf area responses.
A. A. Bloom and M. Williams
Biogeosciences, 12, 1299–1315, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-1299-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-1299-2015, 2015
D. Slevin, S. F. B. Tett, and M. Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 295–316, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-295-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-295-2015, 2015
P. Bergamaschi, M. Corazza, U. Karstens, M. Athanassiadou, R. L. Thompson, I. Pison, A. J. Manning, P. Bousquet, A. Segers, A. T. Vermeulen, G. Janssens-Maenhout, M. Schmidt, M. Ramonet, F. Meinhardt, T. Aalto, L. Haszpra, J. Moncrieff, M. E. Popa, D. Lowry, M. Steinbacher, A. Jordan, S. O'Doherty, S. Piacentino, and E. Dlugokencky
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 715–736, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-715-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-715-2015, 2015
G. B. Bonan, M. Williams, R. A. Fisher, and K. W. Oleson
Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 2193–2222, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-2193-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-2193-2014, 2014
R. Q. Thomas and M. Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 2015–2037, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-2015-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-2015-2014, 2014
G. Xenakis and M. Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 1519–1533, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-1519-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-1519-2014, 2014
R. L. Thompson, K. Ishijima, E. Saikawa, M. Corazza, U. Karstens, P. K. Patra, P. Bergamaschi, F. Chevallier, E. Dlugokencky, R. G. Prinn, R. F. Weiss, S. O'Doherty, P. J. Fraser, L. P. Steele, P. B. Krummel, A. Vermeulen, Y. Tohjima, A. Jordan, L. Haszpra, M. Steinbacher, S. Van der Laan, T. Aalto, F. Meinhardt, M. E. Popa, J. Moncrieff, and P. Bousquet
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 6177–6194, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-6177-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-6177-2014, 2014
A. Berchet, I. Pison, F. Chevallier, P. Bousquet, S. Conil, M. Geever, T. Laurila, J. Lavrič, M. Lopez, J. Moncrieff, J. Necki, M. Ramonet, M. Schmidt, M. Steinbacher, and J. Tarniewicz
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 7115–7132, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-7115-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-7115-2013, 2013
T. L. Smallman, J. B. Moncrieff, and M. Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 1079–1093, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1079-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1079-2013, 2013
Related subject area
Biogeochemistry: Air - Land Exchange
Potential of carbon uptake and local aerosol production in boreal and hemi-boreal ecosystems across Finland and in Estonia
Altered seasonal sensitivity of net ecosystem exchange to controls driven by nutrient balances in a semi-arid savanna
Peltigera lichen thalli produce highly potent ice-nucleating agents
Mercury contamination in staple crops impacted by Artisanal Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM): Stable Hg isotopes demonstrate dominance of atmospheric uptake pathway for Hg in crops
Constraining 2010–2020 Amazonian carbon flux estimates with satellite solar-induced fluorescence (SIF)
Does increased spatial replication above heterogeneous agroforestry improve the representativeness of eddy covariance measurements?
An elucidatory model of oxygen's partial pressure inside substomatal cavities
Aggregation of ice-nucleating macromolecules from Betula pendula pollen determines ice nucleation efficiency
Quantifying the soil sink of atmospheric Hydrogen: a full year of field measurements from grassland and forest soils in the UK
Evaluating adsorption isotherm models for determining the partitioning of ammonium between soil and soil pore water in environmental soil samples
Similar freezing spectra of particles in plant canopies and in the air at a high-altitude site
Anticorrelation of net uptake of atmospheric CO2 by the world ocean and terrestrial biosphere in current carbon cycle models
Impact of meteorological conditions on the biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emission rate from eastern Mediterranean vegetation under drought
Monitoring cropland daily carbon dioxide exchange at field scales with Sentinel-2 satellite imagery
Compound soil and atmospheric drought (CSAD) events and CO2 fluxes of a mixed deciduous forest: the occurrence, impact, and temporal contribution of main drivers
The influence of plant water stress on vegetation–atmosphere exchanges: implications for ozone modelling
High interspecific variability in ice nucleation activity suggests pollen ice nucleators are incidental
Using automated machine learning for the upscaling of gross primary productivity
Interpretability of negative latent heat fluxes from eddy covariance measurements in dry conditions
Forest-floor respiration, N2O fluxes, and CH4 fluxes in a subalpine spruce forest: drivers and annual budgets
Enhanced net CO2 exchange of a semideciduous forest in the southern Amazon due to diffuse radiation from biomass burning
Observational relationships between ammonia, carbon dioxide and water vapor under a wide range of meteorological and turbulent conditions: RITA-2021 campaign
Environmental controls of winter soil carbon dioxide fluxes in boreal and tundra environments
Origin of secondary fatty alcohols in atmospheric aerosols in a cool–temperate forest based on their mass size distributions
Sap flow and leaf gas exchange response to a drought and heatwave in urban green spaces in a Nordic city
Changes in biogenic volatile organic compound emissions in response to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation
Rethinking the deployment of static chambers for CO2 flux measurement in dry desert soils
Lichen species across Alaska produce highly active and stable ice nucleators
A differentiable, physics-informed ecosystem modeling and learning framework for large-scale inverse problems: demonstration with photosynthesis simulations
Snow–vegetation–atmosphere interactions in alpine tundra
Synergy between TROPOMI sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence and MODIS spectral reflectance for understanding the dynamics of gross primary productivity at Integrated Carbon Observatory System (ICOS) ecosystem flux sites
Atmospheric deposition of reactive nitrogen to a deciduous forest in the southern Appalachian Mountains
Tropical cyclones facilitate recovery of forest leaf area from dry spells in East Asia
Minor contributions of daytime monoterpenes are major contributors to atmospheric reactivity
Using atmospheric observations to quantify annual biogenic carbon dioxide fluxes on the Alaska North Slope
Forest–atmosphere exchange of reactive nitrogen in a remote region – Part II: Modeling annual budgets
Growth and actual leaf temperature modulate CO2 responsiveness of monoterpene emissions from holm oak in opposite ways
Multi-year observations reveal a larger than expected autumn respiration signal across northeast Eurasia
Reviews and syntheses: VOC emissions from soil cover in boreal and temperate natural ecosystems of the Northern Hemisphere
Internal tree cycling and atmospheric archiving of mercury: examination with concentration and stable isotope analyses
Contrasting drought legacy effects on gross primary productivity in a mixed versus pure beech forest
CO2 and CH4 exchanges between moist moss tundra and atmosphere on Kapp Linné, Svalbard
Recent extreme drought events in the Amazon rainforest: assessment of different precipitation and evapotranspiration datasets and drought indicators
Variability and uncertainty in flux-site-scale net ecosystem exchange simulations based on machine learning and remote sensing: a systematic evaluation
Update of a biogeochemical model with process-based algorithms to predict ammonia volatilization from fertilized cultivated uplands and rice paddy fields
Massive warming-induced carbon loss from subalpine grassland soils in an altitudinal transplantation experiment
Climatic variation drives loss and restructuring of carbon and nitrogen in boreal forest wildfire
Gaps in network infrastructure limit our understanding of biogenic methane emissions for the United States
Changes of the aerodynamic characteristics of a flux site after an extensive windthrow
Carbon sequestration potential of street tree plantings in Helsinki
Piaopiao Ke, Anna Lintunen, Pasi Kolari, Annalea Lohila, Santeri Tuovinen, Janne Lampilahti, Roseline Thakur, Maija Peltola, Otso Peräkylä, Tuomo Nieminen, Ekaterina Ezhova, Mari Pihlatie, Asta Laasonen, Markku Koskinen, Helena Rautakoski, Laura Heimsch, Tom Kokkonen, Aki Vähä, Ivan Mammarella, Steffen Noe, Jaana Bäck, Veli-Matti Kerminen, and Markku Kulmala
Biogeosciences, 22, 3235–3251, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-3235-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-3235-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Our research explores diverse ecosystems’ roles in climate cooling via the concept of CarbonSink+ potential. We measured CO2 uptake and local aerosol production in forests, farms, peatlands, urban gardens, and coastal areas across Finland and Estonia. The long-term data reveal that, while forests are vital with regard to CarbonSink+ potential, farms and urban gardens also play significant roles. These insights can help optimize management policy of natural resources to mitigate global warming.
Laura Nadolski, Tarek S. El-Madany, Jacob Nelson, Arnaud Carrara, Gerardo Moreno, Richard Nair, Yunpeng Luo, Anke Hildebrandt, Victor Rolo, Markus Reichstein, and Sung-Ching Lee
Biogeosciences, 22, 2935–2958, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2935-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2935-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Semi-arid ecosystems are crucial for Earth's carbon balance and are sensitive to changes in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) levels. Their carbon dynamics are complex and not fully understood. We studied how long-term nutrient changes affect carbon exchange. In summer, the addition of N+P changed plant composition and productivity. In transitional seasons, carbon exchange was less weather-dependent with N. The addition of N and N+P increases carbon-exchange variability, driven by grass greenness.
Rosemary J. Eufemio, Galit Renzer, Mariah Rojas, Jolanta Miadlikowska, Todd L. Sformo, François Lutzoni, Boris A. Vinatzer, and Konrad Meister
Biogeosciences, 22, 2087–2096, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2087-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2087-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Biological ice nucleation plays key roles in organism survival and in shaping Earth’s atmospheric patterns. Our pan-American screening of Peltigera lichens reveals that the lichen thalli produce highly active ice nucleators (INs) resistant to freeze–thaw cycles. Notably, a pure fungal culture from Peltigera britannica released the most potent INs reported to date. Given the global abundance of these lichens, the INs may be important contributors to atmospheric processes.
Excellent O. Eboigbe, Nimelan Veerasamy, Abiodun M. Odukoya, Nnamdi C. Anene, Jeroen E. Sonke, Sayuri Sakisaka Méndez, and David S. McLagan
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1402, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1402, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Air, soil, and three common staple crops were assess at an ASGM processing site and Hg contamination observed at a farm ≈500 m from the processing site. Of the crop tissues examined, foliage had the highest concentrations. Mercury stable isotopes indicate uptake of mercury from the air to the foliage as is the dominant uptake pathway. Using typical dietary data for Nigerians, Hg intake from these crops were below reference dose levels and generally safe for consumption.
Archana Dayalu, Marikate Mountain, Bharat Rastogi, John B. Miller, and Luciana Gatti
Biogeosciences, 22, 1509–1528, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1509-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-1509-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Amazon is facing unprecedented disturbance. Determining trends in Amazonia's carbon balance and its sensitivity to disturbance requires reliable vegetation models that adequately capture how its ecosystems exchange carbon with the atmosphere. Using ground- and satellite-based ecosystem products, we present an improved model of land–atmosphere vegetation carbon exchange across the Amazon. Our model agrees with independent aircraft observations from different locations.
José Ángel Callejas-Rodelas, Alexander Knohl, Ivan Mammarella, Timo Vesala, Olli Peltola, and Christian Markwitz
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-810, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-810, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The spatial variability of CO2 and water vapour exchanges with the atmosphere was quantified above an agroforestry system, and further compared to a monocropping system, using a total of four eddy covariance stations. The variability of fluxes within the agroforestry was found to be as large as the variability between agroforestry and monocropping, induced by the heterogeneity of the site, which highlights the need for replicated measurements above such ecosystems.
Andrew S. Kowalski
Biogeosciences, 22, 785–789, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-785-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-785-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The laws of physics show that leaf oxygen is not photosynthetically enriched but extremely dilute due to the overwhelming effects of humidification. This challenges the prevailing diffusion-only paradigm regarding leaf gas exchanges because non-diffusive transport is required. Such transport also explains why fluxes of carbon dioxide and water vapour become decoupled at very high temperatures, as has been observed but not explained by plant physiologists.
Florian Wieland, Nadine Bothen, Ralph Schwidetzky, Teresa M. Seifried, Paul Bieber, Ulrich Pöschl, Konrad Meister, Mischa Bonn, Janine Fröhlich-Nowoisky, and Hinrich Grothe
Biogeosciences, 22, 103–115, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-103-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-103-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Betula pendula is a widespread birch tree species containing ice nucleation agents that can trigger the freezing of cloud droplets and thereby alter the evolution of clouds. Our study identifies three distinct ice-nucleating macromolecule (INM) aggregates of varying size that can nucleate ice at temperatures up to –5.4°C. Our findings suggest that these vegetation-derived particles may influence atmospheric processes, weather, and climate more strongly than previously thought.
Nicholas Cowan, Toby Roberts, Mark Hanlon, Aurelia Bezanger, Galina Toteva, Alex Tweedie, Karen Yeung, Ajinkya Deshpande, Peter Levy, Ute Skiba, Eiko Nemitz, and Julia Drewer
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3654, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3654, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We measured soil hydrogen (H2) fluxes from two field sites, a managed grassland and a planted deciduous woodland, with flux measurements of H2 covering full seasonal cycles. We estimate annual H2 uptake of -3.1 ± 0.1 and -12.0 ± 0.4 kg H2 ha-1 yr-1 for the grassland and woodland sites, respectively. Soil moisture was found to be the primary driver of H2 uptake, with the clay content of the soils providing a physical barrier which limited H2 uptake.
Matthew G. Davis, Kevin Yan, and Jennifer G. Murphy
Biogeosciences, 21, 5381–5392, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5381-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5381-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ammonia applied as fertilizer can volatilize into the atmosphere. This can threaten vulnerable ecosystems and human health. We investigated the partitioning of ammonia between an immobile adsorbed phase and mobile aqueous phase using several adsorption models. Using the Temkin model we determined that previous approaches to this issue may overestimate the quantity available for exchange by a factor of 5–20, suggesting that ammonia emissions from soil may be overestimated.
Annika Einbock and Franz Conen
Biogeosciences, 21, 5219–5231, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5219-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5219-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A small fraction of particles found at great heights in the atmosphere can freeze cloud droplets at temperatures of ≥ −10 °C and thus influence cloud properties. We provide a novel type of evidence that plant canopies are a major source of such biological ice-nucleating particles in the air above the Alps, potentially affecting mixed-phase cloud development.
Stephen E. Schwartz
Biogeosciences, 21, 5045–5057, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5045-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5045-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Anticorrelation in uptake of atmospheric CO2 following pulse emission or abrupt cessation of emissions is examined in two key model intercomparison studies. In both studies net transfer coefficients from the atmosphere to the world ocean and the terrestrial biosphere are anticorrelated across models, reducing inter-model diversity in decrease of atmospheric CO2 following the perturbation, increasing uncertainties of global warming potentials and consequences of prospective emission reductions.
Qian Li, Gil Lerner, Einat Bar, Efraim Lewinsohn, and Eran Tas
Biogeosciences, 21, 4133–4147, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4133-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4133-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our research indicates that instantaneous changes in meteorological parameters better reflect drought-induced changes in the emission rates of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) from natural vegetation than their absolute values. However, following a small amount of irrigation, this trend became more moderate or reversed, accompanied by a dramatic increase in BVOC emission rates. These findings advance our understanding of BVOC emissions under climate change.
Pia Gottschalk, Aram Kalhori, Zhan Li, Christian Wille, and Torsten Sachs
Biogeosciences, 21, 3593–3616, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3593-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3593-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
To improve the accuracy of spatial carbon exchange estimates, we evaluated simple linear models for net ecosystem exchange (NEE) and gross primary productivity (GPP) and how they can be used to upscale the CO2 exchange of agricultural fields. The models are solely driven by Sentinel-2-derived vegetation indices (VIs). Evaluations show that different VIs have variable power to estimate NEE and GPP of crops in different years. The overall performance is as good as results from complex crop models.
Liliana Scapucci, Ankit Shekhar, Sergio Aranda-Barranco, Anastasiia Bolshakova, Lukas Hörtnagl, Mana Gharun, and Nina Buchmann
Biogeosciences, 21, 3571–3592, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3571-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3571-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Forests face increased exposure to “compound soil and atmospheric drought” (CSAD) events due to global warming. We examined the impacts and drivers of CO2 fluxes during CSAD events at multiple layers of a deciduous forest over 18 years. Results showed reduced net ecosystem productivity and forest-floor respiration during CSAD events, mainly driven by soil and atmospheric drought. This unpredictability in forest CO2 fluxes jeopardises reforestation projects aimed at mitigating CO2 emissions.
Tamara Emmerichs, Yen-Sen Lu, and Domenico Taraborrelli
Biogeosciences, 21, 3251–3269, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3251-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3251-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We assess the representation of the plant response to surface water in a global atmospheric chemistry model. This sensitivity is crucial for the return of precipitation back into the atmosphere and thus significantly impacts the representation of weather as well as air quality. The newly implemented response function reduces this process and has a better comparison with satellite observations. This yields a higher intensity of unusual warm periods and higher production of air pollutants.
Nina L. H. Kinney, Charles A. Hepburn, Matthew I. Gibson, Daniel Ballesteros, and Thomas F. Whale
Biogeosciences, 21, 3201–3214, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3201-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3201-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Molecules released from plant pollen induce the formation of ice from supercooled water at temperatures warm enough to suggest an underlying function for this activity. In this study we show that ice nucleators are ubiquitous in pollen. We suggest the molecules responsible fulfil some unrelated biological function and nucleate ice incidentally. The ubiquity of ice-nucleating molecules in pollen and particularly active examples reveal a greater potential for pollen to impact weather and climate.
Max Gaber, Yanghui Kang, Guy Schurgers, and Trevor Keenan
Biogeosciences, 21, 2447–2472, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2447-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2447-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Gross primary productivity (GPP) describes the photosynthetic carbon assimilation, which plays a vital role in the carbon cycle. We can measure GPP locally, but producing larger and continuous estimates is challenging. Here, we present an approach to extrapolate GPP to a global scale using satellite imagery and automated machine learning. We benchmark different models and predictor variables and achieve an estimate that can capture 75 % of the variation in GPP.
Sinikka J. Paulus, Rene Orth, Sung-Ching Lee, Anke Hildebrandt, Martin Jung, Jacob A. Nelson, Tarek Sebastian El-Madany, Arnaud Carrara, Gerardo Moreno, Matthias Mauder, Jannis Groh, Alexander Graf, Markus Reichstein, and Mirco Migliavacca
Biogeosciences, 21, 2051–2085, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2051-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2051-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Porous materials are known to reversibly trap water from the air, even at low humidity. However, this behavior is poorly understood for soils. In this analysis, we test whether eddy covariance is able to measure the so-called adsorption of atmospheric water vapor by soils. We find that this flux occurs frequently during dry nights in a Mediterranean ecosystem, while EC detects downwardly directed vapor fluxes. These results can help to map moisture uptake globally.
Luana Krebs, Susanne Burri, Iris Feigenwinter, Mana Gharun, Philip Meier, and Nina Buchmann
Biogeosciences, 21, 2005–2028, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2005-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2005-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores year-round forest-floor greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes in a Swiss spruce forest. Soil temperature and snow depth affected forest-floor respiration, while CH4 uptake was linked to snow cover. Negligible N2O fluxes were observed. In 2022, a warm year, CO2 emissions notably increased. The study suggests rising forest-floor GHG emissions due to climate change, impacting carbon sink behavior. Thus, for future forest management, continuous year-round GHG flux measurements are crucial.
Simone Rodrigues, Glauber Cirino, Demerval Moreira, Andrea Pozzer, Rafael Palácios, Sung-Ching Lee, Breno Imbiriba, José Nogueira, Maria Isabel Vitorino, and George Vourlitis
Biogeosciences, 21, 843–868, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-843-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-843-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The radiative effects of atmospheric particles are still unknown for a wide variety of species and types of vegetation present in Amazonian biomes. We examined the effects of aerosols on solar radiation and their impacts on photosynthesis in an area of semideciduous forest in the southern Amazon Basin. Under highly smoky-sky conditions, our results show substantial photosynthetic interruption (20–70 %), attributed specifically to the decrease in solar radiation and leaf canopy temperature.
Ruben B. Schulte, Jordi Vilà-Guerau de Arellano, Susanna Rutledge-Jonker, Shelley van der Graaf, Jun Zhang, and Margreet C. van Zanten
Biogeosciences, 21, 557–574, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-557-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-557-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We analyzed measurements with the aim of finding relations between the surface atmosphere exchange of NH3 and the CO2 uptake and transpiration by vegetation. We found a high correlation of daytime NH3 emissions with both latent heat flux and photosynthetically active radiation. Very few simultaneous measurements of NH3, CO2 fluxes and meteorological variables exist at sub-diurnal timescales. This study paves the way to finding more robust relations between the NH3 exchange flux and CO2 uptake.
Alex Mavrovic, Oliver Sonnentag, Juha Lemmetyinen, Carolina Voigt, Nick Rutter, Paul Mann, Jean-Daniel Sylvain, and Alexandre Roy
Biogeosciences, 20, 5087–5108, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-5087-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-5087-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present an analysis of soil CO2 emissions in boreal and tundra regions during the non-growing season. We show that when the soil is completely frozen, soil temperature is the main control on CO2 emissions. When the soil is around the freezing point, with a mix of liquid water and ice, the liquid water content is the main control on CO2 emissions. This study highlights that the vegetation–snow–soil interactions must be considered to understand soil CO2 emissions during the non-growing season.
Yuhao Cui, Eri Tachibana, Kimitaka Kawamura, and Yuzo Miyazaki
Biogeosciences, 20, 4969–4980, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4969-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4969-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Fatty alcohols (FAs) are major components of surface lipids in plant leaves and serve as surface-active aerosols. Our study on the aerosol size distributions in a forest suggests that secondary FAs (SFAs) originated from plant waxes and that leaf senescence status is likely an important factor controlling the size distribution of SFAs. This study provides new insights into the sources of primary biological aerosol particles (PBAPs) and their effects on the aerosol ice nucleation activity.
Joyson Ahongshangbam, Liisa Kulmala, Jesse Soininen, Yasmin Frühauf, Esko Karvinen, Yann Salmon, Anna Lintunen, Anni Karvonen, and Leena Järvi
Biogeosciences, 20, 4455–4475, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4455-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4455-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Urban vegetation is important for removing urban CO2 emissions and cooling. We studied the response of urban trees' functions (photosynthesis and transpiration) to a heatwave and drought at four urban green areas in the city of Helsinki. We found that tree water use was increased during heatwave and drought periods, but there was no change in the photosynthesis rates. The heat and drought conditions were severe at the local scale but were not excessive enough to restrict urban trees' functions.
Ryan Vella, Andrea Pozzer, Matthew Forrest, Jos Lelieveld, Thomas Hickler, and Holger Tost
Biogeosciences, 20, 4391–4412, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4391-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4391-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the effect of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions from plants. ENSO events can cause a significant increase in these emissions, which have a long-term impact on the Earth's atmosphere. Persistent ENSO conditions can cause long-term changes in vegetation, resulting in even higher BVOC emissions. We link ENSO-induced emission anomalies with driving atmospheric and vegetational variables.
Nadav Bekin and Nurit Agam
Biogeosciences, 20, 3791–3802, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3791-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3791-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The mechanisms of soil CO2 flux in dry desert soils are not fully understood. Yet studies conducted in desert ecosystems rarely discuss potential errors related to using the commonly used flux chambers in dry and bare soils. In our study, the conventional deployment practice of the chambers underestimated the instantaneous CO2 flux by up to 50 % and the total daily CO2 uptake by 35 %. This suggests that desert soils are a larger carbon sink than previously reported.
Rosemary J. Eufemio, Ingrid de Almeida Ribeiro, Todd L. Sformo, Gary A. Laursen, Valeria Molinero, Janine Fröhlich-Nowoisky, Mischa Bonn, and Konrad Meister
Biogeosciences, 20, 2805–2812, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2805-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2805-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Lichens, the dominant vegetation in the Arctic, contain ice nucleators (INs) that enable freezing close to 0°C. Yet the abundance, diversity, and function of lichen INs is unknown. Our screening of lichens across Alaska reveal that most species have potent INs. We find that lichens contain two IN populations which retain activity under environmentally relevant conditions. The ubiquity and stability of lichen INs suggest that they may have considerable impacts on local atmospheric patterns.
Doaa Aboelyazeed, Chonggang Xu, Forrest M. Hoffman, Jiangtao Liu, Alex W. Jones, Chris Rackauckas, Kathryn Lawson, and Chaopeng Shen
Biogeosciences, 20, 2671–2692, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2671-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2671-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Photosynthesis is critical for life and has been affected by the changing climate. Many parameters come into play while modeling, but traditional calibration approaches face many issues. Our framework trains coupled neural networks to provide parameters to a photosynthesis model. Using big data, we independently found parameter values that were correlated with those in the literature while giving higher correlation and reduced biases in photosynthesis rates.
Norbert Pirk, Kristoffer Aalstad, Yeliz A. Yilmaz, Astrid Vatne, Andrea L. Popp, Peter Horvath, Anders Bryn, Ane Victoria Vollsnes, Sebastian Westermann, Terje Koren Berntsen, Frode Stordal, and Lena Merete Tallaksen
Biogeosciences, 20, 2031–2047, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2031-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-2031-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We measured the land–atmosphere exchange of CO2 and water vapor in alpine Norway over 3 years. The extremely snow-rich conditions in 2020 reduced the total annual evapotranspiration to 50 % and reduced the growing-season carbon assimilation to turn the ecosystem from a moderate annual carbon sink to an even stronger source. Our analysis suggests that snow cover anomalies are driving the most consequential short-term responses in this ecosystem’s functioning.
Hamadou Balde, Gabriel Hmimina, Yves Goulas, Gwendal Latouche, and Kamel Soudani
Biogeosciences, 20, 1473–1490, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1473-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1473-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study focuses on the relationship between sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) and ecosystem gross primary productivity (GPP) across the ICOS European flux tower network. It shows that SIF, coupled with reflectance observations, explains over 80 % of the GPP variability across diverse ecosystems but fails to bring new information compared to reflectance alone at coarse spatial scales (~5 km). These findings have applications in agriculture and ecophysiological studies.
John T. Walker, Xi Chen, Zhiyong Wu, Donna Schwede, Ryan Daly, Aleksandra Djurkovic, A. Christopher Oishi, Eric Edgerton, Jesse Bash, Jennifer Knoepp, Melissa Puchalski, John Iiames, and Chelcy F. Miniat
Biogeosciences, 20, 971–995, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-971-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-971-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Better estimates of atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition are needed to accurately assess ecosystem risk and impacts from deposition of nutrients and acidity. Using measurements and modeling, we estimate total N deposition of 6.7 kg N ha−1 yr−1 at a forest site in the southern Appalachian Mountains, a region sensitive to atmospheric deposition. Reductions in deposition of reduced forms of N (ammonia and ammonium) will be needed to meet the lowest estimates of N critical loads for the region.
Yi-Ying Chen and Sebastiaan Luyssaert
Biogeosciences, 20, 349–363, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-349-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-349-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Tropical cyclones are typically assumed to be associated with ecosystem damage. This study challenges this assumption and suggests that instead of reducing leaf area, cyclones in East Asia may increase leaf area by alleviating water stress.
Deborah F. McGlynn, Graham Frazier, Laura E. R. Barry, Manuel T. Lerdau, Sally E. Pusede, and Gabriel Isaacman-VanWertz
Biogeosciences, 20, 45–55, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-45-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-45-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Using a custom-made gas chromatography flame ionization detector, 2 years of speciated hourly biogenic volatile organic compound data were collected in a forest in central Virginia. We identify diurnal and seasonal variability in the data, which is shown to impact atmospheric oxidant budgets. A comparison with emission models identified discrepancies with implications for model outcomes. We suggest increased monitoring of speciated biogenic volatile organic compounds to improve modeled results.
Luke D. Schiferl, Jennifer D. Watts, Erik J. L. Larson, Kyle A. Arndt, Sébastien C. Biraud, Eugénie S. Euskirchen, Jordan P. Goodrich, John M. Henderson, Aram Kalhori, Kathryn McKain, Marikate E. Mountain, J. William Munger, Walter C. Oechel, Colm Sweeney, Yonghong Yi, Donatella Zona, and Róisín Commane
Biogeosciences, 19, 5953–5972, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5953-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5953-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
As the Arctic rapidly warms, vast stores of thawing permafrost could release carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. We combined observations of atmospheric CO2 concentrations from aircraft and a tower with observed CO2 fluxes from tundra ecosystems and found that the Alaskan North Slope in not a consistent source nor sink of CO2. Our study shows the importance of using both site-level and atmospheric measurements to constrain regional net CO2 fluxes and improve biogenic processes in models.
Pascal Wintjen, Frederik Schrader, Martijn Schaap, Burkhard Beudert, Richard Kranenburg, and Christian Brümmer
Biogeosciences, 19, 5287–5311, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5287-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5287-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
For the first time, we compared four methods for estimating the annual dry deposition of total reactive nitrogen into a low-polluted forest ecosystem. In our analysis, we used 2.5 years of flux measurements, an in situ modeling approach, a large-scale chemical transport model (CTM), and canopy budget models. Annual nitrogen dry deposition budgets ranged between 4.3 and 6.7 kg N ha−1 a−1, depending on the applied method.
Michael Staudt, Juliane Daussy, Joseph Ingabire, and Nafissa Dehimeche
Biogeosciences, 19, 4945–4963, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4945-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4945-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the short- and long-term effects of CO2 as a function of temperature on monoterpene emissions from holm oak. Similarly to isoprene, emissions decreased non-linearly with increasing CO2, with no differences among compounds and chemotypes. The CO2 response was modulated by actual leaf and growth temperature but not by growth CO2. Estimates of annual monoterpene release under double CO2 suggest that CO2 inhibition does not offset the increase in emissions due to expected warming.
Brendan Byrne, Junjie Liu, Yonghong Yi, Abhishek Chatterjee, Sourish Basu, Rui Cheng, Russell Doughty, Frédéric Chevallier, Kevin W. Bowman, Nicholas C. Parazoo, David Crisp, Xing Li, Jingfeng Xiao, Stephen Sitch, Bertrand Guenet, Feng Deng, Matthew S. Johnson, Sajeev Philip, Patrick C. McGuire, and Charles E. Miller
Biogeosciences, 19, 4779–4799, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4779-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4779-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Plants draw CO2 from the atmosphere during the growing season, while respiration releases CO2 to the atmosphere throughout the year, driving seasonal variations in atmospheric CO2 that can be observed by satellites, such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 (OCO-2). Using OCO-2 XCO2 data and space-based constraints on plant growth, we show that permafrost-rich northeast Eurasia has a strong seasonal release of CO2 during the autumn, hinting at an unexpectedly large respiration signal from soils.
Valery A. Isidorov and Andrej A. Zaitsev
Biogeosciences, 19, 4715–4746, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4715-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4715-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play a critical role in earth-system processes: they are
main playersin the formation of tropospheric O3 and secondary aerosols, which have a significant impact on climate, human health and crops. A complex mixture of VOCs, formed as a result of physicochemical and biological processes, is released into the atmosphere from the forest floor. This review presents data on the composition of VOCs and contribution of various processes to their emissions.
David S. McLagan, Harald Biester, Tomas Navrátil, Stephan M. Kraemer, and Lorenz Schwab
Biogeosciences, 19, 4415–4429, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4415-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4415-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Spruce and larch trees are effective archiving species for historical atmospheric mercury using growth rings of bole wood. Mercury stable isotope analysis proved an effective tool to characterise industrial mercury signals and assess mercury uptake pathways (leaf uptake for both wood and bark) and mercury cycling within the trees. These data detail important information for understanding the mercury biogeochemical cycle particularly in forest systems.
Xin Yu, René Orth, Markus Reichstein, Michael Bahn, Anne Klosterhalfen, Alexander Knohl, Franziska Koebsch, Mirco Migliavacca, Martina Mund, Jacob A. Nelson, Benjamin D. Stocker, Sophia Walther, and Ana Bastos
Biogeosciences, 19, 4315–4329, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4315-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4315-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Identifying drought legacy effects is challenging because they are superimposed on variability driven by climate conditions in the recovery period. We develop a residual-based approach to quantify legacies on gross primary productivity (GPP) from eddy covariance data. The GPP reduction due to legacy effects is comparable to the concurrent effects at two sites in Germany, which reveals the importance of legacy effects. Our novel methodology can be used to quantify drought legacies elsewhere.
Anders Lindroth, Norbert Pirk, Ingibjörg S. Jónsdóttir, Christian Stiegler, Leif Klemedtsson, and Mats B. Nilsson
Biogeosciences, 19, 3921–3934, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3921-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3921-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We measured the fluxes of carbon dioxide and methane between a moist moss tundra and the atmosphere on Svalbard in order to better understand how such ecosystems are affecting the climate and vice versa. We found that the system was a small sink of carbon dioxide and a small source of methane. These fluxes are small in comparison with other tundra ecosystems in the high Arctic. Analysis of temperature sensitivity showed that respiration was more sensitive than photosynthesis above about 6 ℃.
Phillip Papastefanou, Christian S. Zang, Zlatan Angelov, Aline Anderson de Castro, Juan Carlos Jimenez, Luiz Felipe Campos De Rezende, Romina C. Ruscica, Boris Sakschewski, Anna A. Sörensson, Kirsten Thonicke, Carolina Vera, Nicolas Viovy, Celso Von Randow, and Anja Rammig
Biogeosciences, 19, 3843–3861, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3843-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3843-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Amazon rainforest has been hit by multiple severe drought events. In this study, we assess the severity and spatial extent of the extreme drought years 2005, 2010 and 2015/16 in the Amazon. Using nine different precipitation datasets and three drought indicators we find large differences in drought stress across the Amazon region. We conclude that future studies should use multiple rainfall datasets and drought indicators when estimating the impact of drought stress in the Amazon region.
Haiyang Shi, Geping Luo, Olaf Hellwich, Mingjuan Xie, Chen Zhang, Yu Zhang, Yuangang Wang, Xiuliang Yuan, Xiaofei Ma, Wenqiang Zhang, Alishir Kurban, Philippe De Maeyer, and Tim Van de Voorde
Biogeosciences, 19, 3739–3756, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3739-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3739-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A number of studies have been conducted by using machine learning approaches to simulate carbon fluxes. We performed a meta-analysis of these net ecosystem exchange (NEE) simulations. Random forests and support vector machines performed better than other algorithms. Models with larger timescales had a lower accuracy. For different plant functional types (PFTs), there were significant differences in the predictors used and their effects on model accuracy.
Siqi Li, Wei Zhang, Xunhua Zheng, Yong Li, Shenghui Han, Rui Wang, Kai Wang, Zhisheng Yao, Chunyan Liu, and Chong Zhang
Biogeosciences, 19, 3001–3019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3001-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3001-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The CNMM–DNDC model was modified to simulate ammonia volatilization (AV) from croplands. AV from cultivated uplands followed the first-order kinetics, which was jointly regulated by the factors of soil properties and meteorological conditions. AV simulation from rice paddy fields was improved by incorporating Jayaweera–Mikkelsen mechanisms. The modified model performed well in simulating the observed cumulative AV measured from 63 fertilization events in China.
Matthias Volk, Matthias Suter, Anne-Lena Wahl, and Seraina Bassin
Biogeosciences, 19, 2921–2937, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2921-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2921-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Because soils are an important sink for greenhouse gasses, we subjected sub-alpine grassland to a six-level climate change treatment.
Two independent methods showed that at warming > 1.5 °C the grassland ecosystem lost ca. 14 % or ca. 1 kg C m−2 in 5 years.
This shrinking of the terrestrial C sink implies a substantial positive feedback to the atmospheric greenhouse effect.
It is likely that this dramatic C loss is a transient effect before a new, climate-adjusted steady state is reached.
Johan A. Eckdahl, Jeppe A. Kristensen, and Daniel B. Metcalfe
Biogeosciences, 19, 2487–2506, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2487-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2487-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study found climate to be a driving force for increasing per area emissions of greenhouse gases and removal of important nutrients from high-latitude forests due to wildfire. It used detailed direct measurements over a large area to uncover patterns and mechanisms of restructuring of forest carbon and nitrogen pools that are extrapolatable to larger regions. It also takes a step forward in filling gaps in global knowledge of northern forest response to climate-change-strengthened wildfires.
Sparkle L. Malone, Youmi Oh, Kyle A. Arndt, George Burba, Roisin Commane, Alexandra R. Contosta, Jordan P. Goodrich, Henry W. Loescher, Gregory Starr, and Ruth K. Varner
Biogeosciences, 19, 2507–2522, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2507-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2507-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
To understand the CH4 flux potential of natural ecosystems and agricultural lands in the United States of America, a multi-scale CH4 observation network focused on CH4 flux rates, processes, and scaling methods is required. This can be achieved with a network of ground-based observations that are distributed based on climatic regions and land cover.
Bruna R. F. Oliveira, Jan J. Keizer, and Thomas Foken
Biogeosciences, 19, 2235–2243, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2235-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2235-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study analyzes the impacts of this windthrow on the aerodynamic characteristics of zero-plane displacement and roughness length and, ultimately, their implications for the turbulent fluxes. The turbulent fluxes were only affected to a minor degree by the windthrow, but the footprint area of the flux tower changed markedly so that the target area of the measurements had to be redetermined.
Minttu Havu, Liisa Kulmala, Pasi Kolari, Timo Vesala, Anu Riikonen, and Leena Järvi
Biogeosciences, 19, 2121–2143, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2121-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2121-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The carbon sequestration potential of two street tree species and the soil beneath them was quantified with the urban land surface model SUEWS and the soil carbon model Yasso. The street tree plantings turned into a modest sink of carbon from the atmosphere after 14 years. Overall, the results indicate the importance of soil in urban carbon sequestration estimations, as soil respiration exceeded the carbon uptake in the early phase, due to the high initial carbon loss from the soil.
Cited articles
Ahmadov, R., Gerbig, C., Kretschmer, R., Körner, S., Rödenbeck, C., Bousquet, P., and Ramonet, M.: Comparing high resolution WRF-VPRM simulations and two global CO2 transport models with coastal tower measurements of CO2, Biogeosciences, 6, 807–817, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-807-2009, 2009.
Bradley, R., Milne, R., Bell, J., Lilly, A., Jordan, C., and Higgins, A.: A soil carbon and land use database for the United Kingdom, Soil Use Manage., 21, 363–369, https://doi.org/10.1079/SUM2005351, 2005.
Brunner, D., Henne, S., Keller, C. A., Reimann, S., Vollmer, M. K., O'Doherty, S., and Maione, M.: An extended Kalman-filter for regional scale inverse emission estimation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 3455–3478, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-3455-2012, 2012.
Canadell, J. G., Le Quere, C., Raupach, M. R., Field, C. B., Buitenhuis, E. T., Ciais, P., Conway, T. J., Gillett, N. P., Houghton, R. A., and Marland, G.: Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 104, 18866–18870, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702737104, 2007.
Cannell, M., Milne, R., Hargreaves, K., Brown, T., Cruickshank, M., Bradley, R., Spencer, T., Hope, D., Billett, M., Adger, W., and Subak, S.: National inventories of terrestrial carbon sources and sinks: The UK experience, Climatic Change, 42, 505–530, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005425807434, 1999.
Ciais, P., Reichstein, M., Viovy, N., Granier, A., Ogee, J., Allard, V., Aubinet, M., Buchmann, N., Bernhofer, C., Carrara, A., Chevallier, F., De Noblet, N., Friend, A., Friedlingstein, P., Grunwald, T., Heinesch, B., Keronen, P., Knohl, A., Krinner, G., Loustau, D., Manca, G., Matteucci, G., Miglietta, F., Ourcival, J., Papale, D., Pilegaard, K., Rambal, S., Seufert, G., Soussana, J., Sanz, M., Schulze, E., Vesala, T., and Valentini, R.: Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003, Nature, 437, 529–533, 2005.
Farquhar, G. D. and von Caemmerer, S.: \normalfontModelling of photosynthetic response to the environment, Physiological Plant Ecology II. Encyclopedia of plant physiology, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1982.
Forestry Commission Scotland: The Scottish Government's Rational for Woodland Expansion, The scottish government strategy document, Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, EH12 7AT, Scotland, 2009.
Gerbig, C., Dolman, A. J., and Heimann, M.: On observational and modelling strategies targeted at regional carbon exchange over continents, Biogeosciences, 6, 1949–1959, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-1949-2009, 2009.
Gurney, K., Law, R., Denning, A., Rayner, P., Baker, D., Bousquet, P., Bruhwiler, L., Chen, Y., Ciais, P., Fan, S., Fung, I., Gloor, M., Heimann, M., Higuchi, K., John, J., Maki, T., Maksyutov, S., Masarie, K., Peylin, P., Prather, M., Pak, B., Randerson, J., Sarmiento, J., Taguchi, S., Takahashi, T., and Yuen, C.: Towards robust regional estimates of CO2 sources and sinks using atmospheric transport models, Nature, 415, 626–630, https://doi.org/10.1038/415626a, 2002.
Henne, S., Brunner, D., Folini, D., Solberg, S., Klausen, J., and Buchmann, B.: Assessment of parameters describing representativeness of air quality in-situ measurement sites, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3561–3581, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-3561-2010, 2010.
Hu, X.-M., Klein, P. M., and Xue, M.: Evaluation of the updated YSU planetary boundary layer scheme within WRF for wind resource and air quality assessments, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50823, 2013.
ICOS: Integrated Carbon Observing System: Stakeholders Handbook, A European Infrastructure – European Union, LSCE-Orme, CEA-Orme des Merisiers, F-91191 GIF-SUR-YVETTE CEDEX, 2012.
IPCC: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change., edited by: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H. L., Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007.
Janssens, I. A., Freibauer, A., Schlamadinger, B., Ceulemans, R., Ciais, P., Dolman, A. J., Heimann, M., Nabuurs, G.-J., Smith, P., Valentini, R., and Schulze, E.-D.: The carbon budget of terrestrial ecosystems at country-scale – a European case study, Biogeosciences, 2, 15–26, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2-15-2005, 2005.
Jones, H. G.: Plants and microclimate, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992.
Lauvaux, T., Schuh, A. E., Bocquet, M., Wu, L., Richardson, S., Miles, N., and Davis, K. J.: Network design for mesoscale inversions of CO2 sources and sinks, Tellus Ser. B-Chem. Phys. Meteorol., 64, 17980, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v64i0.17980, 2012.
Luyssaert, S., Ciais, P., Piao, S. L., Schulze, E. D., Jung, M., Zaehle, S., Schelhaas, M. J., Reichstein, M., Churkina, G., Papale, D., Abril, G., Beer, C., Grace, J., Loustau, D., Matteucci, G., Magnani, F., Nabuurs, G. J., Verbeeck, H., Sulkava, M., van der Werf, G. R., Janssens, I. A., and CARBOEUROPE-IP Synth Team}: {The European carbon balance. Part 3: forests, Glob. Change Biol., 16, 1429–1450, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02056.x, 2010.
Macaulay Land Use Research Institute: The land cover of Scotland 1988: Executive Summary, The scottish government strategy document, The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, AB9 2QJ, Scotland, iSBN 0 7084 0538 X, 1993.
Mesoscale and Microscale Meteorology Division: Weather Research and Forecasting ARW Version 3 Modelling System User's Guide, User's guide, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Colorado, USA, 2011.
Miles, N. L., Richardson, S. J., Davis, K. J., Lauvaux, T., Andrews, A. E., West, T. O., Bandaru, V., and Crosson, E. R.: Large amplitude spatial and temporal gradients in atmospheric boundary layer CO2 mole fractions detected with a tower-based network in the U.S. upper Midwest, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 117, G01019, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JG001781, 2012.
Peters, W., Jacobson, A. R., Sweeney, C., Andrews, A. E., Conway, T. J., Masarie, K., Miller, J. B., Bruhwiler, L. M. P., Petron, G., Hirsch, A. I., Worthy, D. E. J., van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Wennberg, P. O., Krol, M. C., and Tans, P. P.: An atmospheric perspective on North American carbon dioxide exchange: CarbonTracker, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 104, 18925–18930, 2007.
Peters, W., Krol, M. C., van der Werf, G. R., Houweling, S., Jones, C. D., Hughes, J., Schaefer, K., Masarie, K. A., Jacobson, A. R., Miller, J. B., Cho, C. H., Ramonet, M., Schmidt, M., Ciattaglia, L., Apadula, F., Helta, D., Meinhardt, F., di Sarra, A. G., Piacentino, S., Sferlazzo, D., Aalto, T., Hatakka, J., Strom, J., Haszpra, L., Meijer, H. A. J., van der Laan, S., Neubert, R. E. M., Jordan, A., Rodo, X., Morgui, J. A., Vermeulen, A. T., Popa, E., Rozanski, K., Zimnoch, M., Manning, A. C., Leuenberger, M., Uglietti, C., Dolman, A. J., Ciais, P., Heimann, M., and Tans, P. P.: Seven years of recent European net terrestrial carbon dioxide exchange constrained by atmospheric observations, Glob. Change Biol., 16, 1317–1337, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02078.x, 2010.
Pillai, D., Gerbig, C., Ahmadov, R., Rödenbeck, C., Kretschmer, R., Koch, T., Thompson, R., Neininger, B., and Lavrié, J. V.: High-resolution simulations of atmospheric CO2 over complex terrain – representing the Ochsenkopf mountain tall tower, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7445–7464, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-7445-2011, 2011.
Rigby, M., Manning, A. J., and Prinn, R. G.: Inversion of long-lived trace gas emissions using combined Eulerian and Lagrangian chemical transport models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 9887–9898, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-9887-2011, 2011.
Scottish Government: Scottish Agricultural Census, A national statistics publication for scotland: Agricultural series, The Scottish Government, 2012.
Skamarock, W. C., Klemp, J. B., Dudhia, J., Gill, D. O., Barker, D. M., Duda, M. G., Huang, X.-Y., Wang, W., and Powers, J. G.: A Description of the Advanced research WRF Version 3, 2008.
Smallman, T. L., Moncrieff, J. B., and Williams, M.: WRFv3.2-SPAv2: development and validation of a coupled ecosystem-atmosphere model, scaling from surface fluxes of CO2 and energy to atmospheric profiles, Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 1079–1093, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-1079-2013, 2013.
Smith, P.: Carbon sequestration in croplands: the potential in Europe and the global context, Eur. J. Agron., 20, 229–236, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2003.08.002, 2004.
Steeneveld, G. J., Tolk, L. F., Moene, A. F., Hartogensis, O. K., Peters, W., and Holtslag, A. A. M.: Confronting the WRF and RAMS mesoscale models with innovative observations in the Netherlands: Evaluating the boundary layer heat budget, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D23114, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016303, 2011.
Sus, O., Williams, M., Bernhofer, C., Beziat, P., Buchmann, N., Ceschia, E., Doherty, R., Eugster, W., Gruenwald, T., Kutsch, W., Smith, P., and Wattenbach, M.: A linked carbon cycle and crop developmental model: Description and evaluation against measurements of carbon fluxes and carbon stocks at several European agricultural sites, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 139, 402–418, 2010.
Thomson, A. M., Hallsworth, S., and Malcolm, H.: Emissions and Removals of Greenhouse Gases from Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland: 1990-2010, Department for Energy and Climate Change Contract GA0510, 2012.
Tolk, L. F., Peters, W., Meesters, A. G. C. A., Groenendijk, M., Vermeulen, A. T., Steeneveld, G. J., and Dolman, A. J.: Modelling regional scale surface fluxes, meteorology and CO2 mixing ratios for the Cabauw tower in the Netherlands, Biogeosciences, 6, 2265–2280, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-2265-2009, 2009.
Vermeulen, A. T., Hensen, A., Popa, M. E., van den Bulk, W. C. M., and Jongejan, P. A. C.: Greenhouse gas observations from Cabauw Tall Tower (1992–2010), Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 617–644, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-617-2011, 2011.
Williams, M., Rastetter, E. B., Fernandes, D. N., Goulden, M. L., Wofsy, S. C., Shaver, G. R., Melillo, J. M., Munger, J. W., Fan, S. M., and Nadelhoffer, K. J.: Modelling the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum in a Quercus-Acer stand at Harvard Forest: the regulation of stomatal conductance by light, nitrogen and soil/plant hydraulic properties, Plant Cell Environ., 19, 911–927, 1996.
Williams, M., Schwarz, P. A., Law, B. E., Irvine, J., and Kurpius, M.: An improved analysis of forest carbon dynamics using data assimilation, Glob. Change Biol., 11, 89–105, 2005.
Williams, M., Malhi, Y., Nobre, A., Rastetter, E., Grace, J., and Pereira, M.: Seasonal variation in net carbon exchange and evapotranspiration in a Brazilian rain forest: a modelling analysis, Plant Cell Environ., 21, 953–968, 1998.
Williams, M., Law, B., Anthoni, P., and Unsworth, M.: Use of a simulation model and ecosystem flux data to examine carbon-water interactions in Ponderosa pine, Tree Physiol., 21, 287–298, 2001.
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint