Articles | Volume 19, issue 14
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3381-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3381-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
BG Letters
| Highlight paper
| 
20 Jul 2022
BG Letters | Highlight paper |
| 20 Jul 2022
| 20 Jul 2022
Soil carbon loss in warmed subarctic grasslands is rapid and restricted to topsoil
Niel Verbrigghe
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Niki I. W. Leblans
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Climate Impacts Research Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
Bjarni D. Sigurdsson
Faculty of Environmental and Forest Sciences, Agricultural University of Iceland, Hvanneyri, Borgarnes, Iceland
Sara Vicca
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Chao Fang
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
School of Applied Meteorology, Institute of Ecology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, Institute of Arid Agroecology, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
Lucia Fuchslueger
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Jennifer L. Soong
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Soil and Crop Sciences Department, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
James T. Weedon
Systems Ecology, Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Christopher Poeplau
Thünen Institute of Climate-Smart Agriculture, Braunschweig, Germany
Cristina Ariza-Carricondo
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Michael Bahn
Department of Ecology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Bertrand Guenet
Laboratoire de Géologie, École normale supérieure/CNRS, PSL Research University, Paris, France
Per Gundersen
Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
Gunnhildur E. Gunnarsdóttir
Soil Conservation Service of Iceland, Gunnarsholt, Hella, Iceland
Thomas Kätterer
Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Zhanfeng Liu
Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems & CAS Engineering Laboratory for Vegetation Ecosystem Restoration on Islands and Coastal Zones, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
Marja Maljanen
Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
Sara Marañón-Jiménez
CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
CSIC, Global Ecology Unit CREAF–CSIC–UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Kathiravan Meeran
Department of Ecology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Edda S. Oddsdóttir
Icelandic Forest Research, Mógilsá, Reykjavík, Iceland
Ivika Ostonen
Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
Josep Peñuelas
CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
CSIC, Global Ecology Unit CREAF–CSIC–UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Andreas Richter
Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria
Jordi Sardans
CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
CSIC, Global Ecology Unit CREAF–CSIC–UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Páll Sigurðsson
Faculty of Environmental and Forest Sciences, Agricultural University of Iceland, Hvanneyri, Borgarnes, Iceland
Margaret S. Torn
Climate and Ecosystem Sciences Division, Berkeley Lab, Berkeley, California, USA
Peter M. Van Bodegom
Environmental Biology Department, Institute of Environmental Sciences, CML, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
Erik Verbruggen
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Tom W. N. Walker
Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
Håkan Wallander
MEMEG, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Ivan A. Janssens
Research Group Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-585, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-585, 2025
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Boris Ťupek, Aleksi Lehtonen, Stefano Manzoni, Elisa Bruni, Petr Baldrian, Etienne Richy, Bartosz Adamczyk, Bertrand Guenet, and Raisa Mäkipää
Biogeosciences, 22, 5497–5510, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-5497-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-5497-2025, 2025
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We explored soil microbial respiration (Rh) kinetics of low-dose and long-term N fertilization in N-limited boreal forest in connection with CH4 and N2O fluxes and soil and tree C sinks. The insights show that N fertilization affects C retention in boreal forest soils by modifying Rh sensitivities to soil temperature and moisture. The key findings reveal that N-enriched soils exhibited reduced sensitivity of Rh to moisture, which contributed to enhanced soil C sequestration on an annual level.
Victoria Martin, Cornelia Rottensteiner, Hannes Schmidt, Moritz Mohrlok, Julia Horak, Carolina Urbina-Malo, Julia Wagner, Willeke A' Campo, Luca Durstewitz, Niek Jesse Speetjens, Rachele Lodi, Bela Hausmann, Michael Fritz, Gustaf Hugelius, and Andreas Richter
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4603, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-4603, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Biogeosciences (BG).
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We asked how organic matter pools and microbial communities vary across polygon types and soil layers in Arctic lowland tundra. Low-centered polygons had lower microbial abundance, enzyme activity, and organic matter bioavailability. Topsoils were microbial hotspots, but thaw could also quickly mobilize organic carbon stored in the upper permafrost. Overall, organic matter and redox gradients emerged as key drivers, offering a simple framework for predictions of landscape-scale carbon changes.
Rémi Gaillard, Patricia Cadule, Philippe Peylin, Nicolas Vuichard, and Bertrand Guenet
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3656, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3656, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Geoscientific Model Development (GMD).
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Arta Bārdule, Raija Laiho, Jyrki Jauhiainen, Kaido Soosaar, Andis Lazdiņš, Kęstutis Armolaitis, Aldis Butlers, Dovilė Čiuldienė, Andreas Haberl, Ain Kull, Milda Muraškienė, Ivika Ostonen, Gristin Rohula-Okunev, Muhammad Kamil-Sardar, Thomas Schindler, Hanna Vahter, Egidijus Vigricas, and Ieva Līcīte
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Laëtitia Bréchet, Mercedes Ibáñez, Robert B. Jackson, Benoît Burban, Clément Stahl, Damien Bonal, and Ivan A. Janssens
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3501, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3501, 2025
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Arthur Vienne, Jennifer Newell, Jasper Roussard, Rory Doherty, Siobhan F. Cox, Gary Lyons, and Sara Vicca
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3232, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3232, 2025
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Elodie Salmon, Bertrand Guenet, and Agnès Ducharne
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3511, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3511, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Earth System Dynamics (ESD).
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Soil organic carbon stockage is a key process to mitigate climate change and is intertwined with soil temperature and moisture and of other secondary soil properties. This study shows the significance of secondary drivers in the relationship between soil moisture and microbial efficiency in soil organic carbon degradation. Using empirical relationships in a global ecosystem model enhanced significantly the heterogeneous spatial pattern of soil organic carbon stock and carbon dioxide fluxes.
Andrew S. Kowalski, Ivan A. Janssens, and Óscar Pérez-Priego
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2695, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2695, 2025
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Humidification of air reduces the abundances of dry-air gas components such as oxygen, explaining why tropical humidity can be "stifling". This is overlooked due to the common expression of gas concentrations as fractions of dry air. Such neglect of water vapour also masks the key role of its sources and sinks in activating transport mechanisms of other gases. Humidity should be quantified whenever reporting gas concentrations.
Jet Rijnders, Arthur Vienne, and Sara Vicca
Biogeosciences, 22, 2803–2829, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2803-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2803-2025, 2025
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A mesocosm experiment was set up to investigate how maize responds to the application of basalt, concrete fines, and steel slag, using a dose–response approach. Biomass increased with basalt application but did not change with concrete fines or steel slag, except for increased tassel biomass. Mg, Ca, and Si generally increased in the crops, whereas toxic trace elements remained unaffected or even decreased in the plants. Overall, crops were positively affected by the application of silicate materials.
Jelle Bijma, Mathilde Hagens, Jens Hammes, Noah Planavsky, Philip A. E. Pogge von Strandmann, Tom Reershemius, Christopher T. Reinhard, Phil Renforth, Tim Jesper Suhrhoff, Sara Vicca, Arthur Vienne, and Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2740, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2740, 2025
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Enhanced rock weathering is a nature based negative emission technology, that permanently stores CO2. It requires rock-flour to be added to arable land with the help of farmers. To be eligible for carbon credits calls for a simple but scientifically solid, so called, Monitoring, Reporting & Verification” (MRV). We demonstrate that the commonly used carbon-based accounting is ill-suited to close the balance in open systems such as arable land, and argue for cation-based accounting strategy.
Julien Lamour, Shawn P. Serbin, Alistair Rogers, Kelvin T. Acebron, Elizabeth Ainsworth, Loren P. Albert, Michael Alonzo, Jeremiah Anderson, Owen K. Atkin, Nicolas Barbier, Mallory L. Barnes, Carl J. Bernacchi, Ninon Besson, Angela C. Burnett, Joshua S. Caplan, Jérôme Chave, Alexander W. Cheesman, Ilona Clocher, Onoriode Coast, Sabrina Coste, Holly Croft, Boya Cui, Clément Dauvissat, Kenneth J. Davidson, Christopher Doughty, Kim S. Ely, Jean-Baptiste Féret, Iolanda Filella, Claire Fortunel, Peng Fu, Maquelle Garcia, Bruno O. Gimenez, Kaiyu Guan, Zhengfei Guo, David Heckmann, Patrick Heuret, Marney Isaac, Shan Kothari, Etsushi Kumagai, Thu Ya Kyaw, Liangyun Liu, Lingli Liu, Shuwen Liu, Joan Llusià, Troy Magney, Isabelle Maréchaux, Adam R. Martin, Katherine Meacham-Hensold, Christopher M. Montes, Romà Ogaya, Joy Ojo, Regison Oliveira, Alain Paquette, Josep Peñuelas, Antonia Debora Placido, Juan M. Posada, Xiaojin Qian, Heidi J. Renninger, Milagros Rodriguez-Caton, Andrés Rojas-González, Urte Schlüter, Giacomo Sellan, Courtney M. Siegert, Guangqin Song, Charles D. Southwick, Daisy C. Souza, Clément Stahl, Yanjun Su, Leeladarshini Sujeeun, To-Chia Ting, Vicente Vasquez, Amrutha Vijayakumar, Marcelo Vilas-Boas, Diane R. Wang, Sheng Wang, Han Wang, Jing Wang, Xin Wang, Andreas P. M. Weber, Christopher Y. S. Wong, Jin Wu, Fengqi Wu, Shengbiao Wu, Zhengbing Yan, Dedi Yang, and Yingyi Zhao
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-213, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-213, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for ESSD
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We present the Global Spectra-Trait Initiative (GSTI), a collaborative repository of paired leaf hyperspectral and gas exchange measurements from diverse ecosystems. This repository provides a unique source of information for creating hyperspectral models for predicting photosynthetic traits and associated leaf traits in terrestrial plants.
Mike C. Rowley, Jasquelin Pena, Matthew A. Marcus, Rachel Porras, Elaine Pegoraro, Cyrill Zosso, Nicholas O. E. Ofiti, Guido L. B. Wiesenberg, Michael W. I. Schmidt, Margaret S. Torn, and Peter S. Nico
SOIL, 11, 381–388, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-381-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-381-2025, 2025
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This study shows that calcium (Ca) preserves soil organic carbon (SOC) in acidic soils, challenging beliefs that their interactions were limited to near-neutral or alkaline soils. Using spectromicroscopy, we found that Ca was co-located with a specific fraction of carbon, rich in aromatic and phenolic groups. This association was disrupted when Ca was removed but was reformed during decomposition with added Ca. Overall, this suggests that Ca amendments could enhance SOC stability.
Arthur Vienne, Patrick Frings, Jet Rijnders, Tim Jesper Suhrhoff, Tom Reershemius, Reinaldy P. Poetra, Jens Hartmann, Harun Niron, Miguel Portillo Estrada, Laura Steinwidder, Lucilla Boito, and Sara Vicca
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1667, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1667, 2025
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Our study explores Enhanced Weathering (EW) using basalt rock dust to combat climate change. We treated corn-planted mesocosms with varying basalt amounts and monitored them for 101 days. Surprisingly, we found no significant inorganic carbon dioxide removal (CDR). However, rock weathering was evident through increased exchangeable bases. While immediate inorganic CDR benefits were not observed, basalt amendment may enhance soil health and potentially long-term carbon sequestration.
Hirofumi Hashimoto, Weile Wang, Taejin Park, Sepideh Khajehei, Kazuhito Ichii, Andrew Michaelis, Alberto Guzman, Ramakrishna Nemani, Margaret Torn, Koong Yi, and Ian Brosnan
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-33, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-33, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for ESSD
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We create the GeoNEX Coincident Ground Observations dataset (GeCGO) by extracting point data at observational network sites across Americas from the gridded GeoNEX products. The GeoNEX dataset is the high temporal frequent dataset of the latest geostationary satellites observations. We also release the software, GeoNEXTools, that helps handling the GeCGO data. GeCGO data and GeoNEXTools could help scientists use geostationary satellite data at their interested ground observational sites.
Julia Wagner, Juliane Wolter, Justine Ramage, Victoria Martin, Andreas Richter, Niek Jesse Speetjens, Jorien E. Vonk, Rachele Lodi, Annett Bartsch, Michael Fritz, Hugues Lantuit, and Gustaf Hugelius
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1052, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1052, 2025
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Permafrost soils store vast amounts of organic carbon, key to understanding climate change. This study uses machine learning and combines existing data with new field data to create detailed regional maps of soil carbon and nitrogen stocks for the Yukon coastal plain. The results show how soil properties vary across the landscape highlighting the importance of data selection for accurate predictions. These findings improve carbon storage estimates and may aid regional carbon budget assessments.
Thomas Dirnböck, Michael Bahn, Eugenio Diaz-Pines, Ika Djukic, Michael Englisch, Karl Gartner, Günther Gollobich, Johannes Ingrisch, Barbara Kitzler, Karl Knaebel, Johannes Kobler, Andreas Maier, Armin Malli, Ivo Offenthaler, Johannes Peterseil, Gisela Pröll, Sarah Venier, Christoph Wohner, Sophie Zechmeister-Boltenstern, Anita Zolles, and Stephan Glatzel
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 685–702, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-685-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-685-2025, 2025
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Long-term observation sites have been established in six Austrian locations, covering major ecosystem types such as forests, grasslands, and wetlands. The purpose of these observations is to measure baselines for assessing the impacts of extreme climate events on the carbon cycle. The collected datasets include meteorological variables, soil temperature and moisture, carbon dioxide fluxes, and tree stem growth in forests at a resolution of 15–60 min between 2019 and 2021.
Binyan Sun, Cyrill U. Zosso, Guido L. B. Wiesenberg, Elaine Pegoraro, Margaret S. Torn, and Michael W. I. Schmidt
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-299, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-299, 2025
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To understand how warming will change the dynamics of roots across soil profile, we took usage of a long-term field warming experiment and incubated 13C-labelled roots at three different depths. After 3 years of incubation, warming only accelerate the decomposition of root in topsoil (< 20 cm) but not in subsoil (> 20 cm). Hydrolysable lipids derived from root, which are considered as recalcitrant compounds and could be preserved for long time in the soil, are also decomposed faster in topsoil.
Amicie A. Delahaie, Lauric Cécillon, Marija Stojanova, Samuel Abiven, Pierre Arbelet, Dominique Arrouays, François Baudin, Antonio Bispo, Line Boulonne, Claire Chenu, Jussi Heinonsalo, Claudy Jolivet, Kristiina Karhu, Manuel Martin, Lorenza Pacini, Christopher Poeplau, Céline Ratié, Pierre Roudier, Nicolas P. A. Saby, Florence Savignac, and Pierre Barré
SOIL, 10, 795–812, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-795-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-795-2024, 2024
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This paper compares the soil organic carbon fractions obtained from a new thermal fractionation scheme and a well-known physical fractionation scheme on an unprecedented dataset of French topsoil samples. For each fraction, we use a machine learning model to determine its environmental drivers (pedology, climate, and land cover). Our results suggest that these two fractionation schemes provide different fractions, which means they provide complementary information.
Guillaume Marie, Jina Jeong, Hervé Jactel, Gunnar Petter, Maxime Cailleret, Matthew J. McGrath, Vladislav Bastrikov, Josefine Ghattas, Bertrand Guenet, Anne Sofie Lansø, Kim Naudts, Aude Valade, Chao Yue, and Sebastiaan Luyssaert
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8023–8047, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8023-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8023-2024, 2024
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This research looks at how climate change influences forests, and particularly how altered wind and insect activities could make forests emit instead of absorb carbon. We have updated a land surface model called ORCHIDEE to better examine the effect of bark beetles on forest health. Our findings suggest that sudden events, such as insect outbreaks, can dramatically affect carbon storage, offering crucial insights into tackling climate change.
Lucia Fuchslueger, Emily Francesca Solly, Alberto Canarini, and Albert Carles Brangarí
Biogeosciences, 21, 3959–3964, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3959-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3959-2024, 2024
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This overview of the special issue “Global change effects on terrestrial biogeochemistry at the plant–soil interface” features empirical, conceptual and modelling-based studies and outlines key findings on plant responses to elevated CO2; soil organism responses to warming; impacts on soil organic carbon, nitrogen and mineral nutrient cycling; and water level changes affecting greenhouse gas emissions, from the Arctic to the tropics, which are crucial for deciphering feedbacks to global change.
Boris Ťupek, Aleksi Lehtonen, Alla Yurova, Rose Abramoff, Bertrand Guenet, Elisa Bruni, Samuli Launiainen, Mikko Peltoniemi, Shoji Hashimoto, Xianglin Tian, Juha Heikkinen, Kari Minkkinen, and Raisa Mäkipää
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 5349–5367, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-5349-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-5349-2024, 2024
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Updating the Yasso07 soil C model's dependency on decomposition with a hump-shaped Ricker moisture function improved modelled soil organic C (SOC) stocks in a catena of mineral and organic soils in boreal forest. The Ricker function, set to peak at a rate of 1 and calibrated against SOC and CO2 data using a Bayesian approach, showed a maximum in well-drained soils. Using SOC and CO2 data together with the moisture only from the topsoil humus was crucial for accurate model estimates.
Mery Ingrid Guimarães de Alencar, Rafael D. Guariento, Bertrand Guenet, Luciana S. Carneiro, Eduardo L. Voigt, and Adriano Caliman
Biogeosciences, 21, 3165–3182, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3165-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3165-2024, 2024
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Flowers are ephemeral organs for reproduction, and their litter is functionally different from leaf litter. Flowers can affect decomposition and interact with leaf litter, influencing decomposition non-additively. We show that mixing flower and leaf litter from the Tabebuia aurea tree creates reciprocal synergistic effects on decomposition in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. We highlight that flower litter input can generate biogeochemical hotspots in terrestrial ecosystems.
Maria Regina Gmach, Martin Anders Bolinder, Lorenzo Menichetti, Thomas Kätterer, Heide Spiegel, Olle Åkesson, Jürgen Kurt Friedel, Andreas Surböck, Agnes Schweinzer, and Taru Sandén
SOIL, 10, 407–423, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-407-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-407-2024, 2024
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We evaluated the effect of soil management practices on decomposition at 29 sites (13 in Sweden and 16 in Austria) using long-term field experiments with the Tea Bag Index (TBI) approach. We found that the decomposition rate (k) and stabilization factor (S) were mainly governed by climatic conditions. In general, organic and mineral fertilization increased k and S, and reduced tillage increased S. Edaphic factors also affected k and S.
Laura Sereni, Julie-Maï Paris, Isabelle Lamy, and Bertrand Guenet
SOIL, 10, 367–380, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-367-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-367-2024, 2024
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We estimate the tendencies of copper (Cu) export in freshwater or accumulation in soils in Europe for the 21st century and highlight areas of importance for environmental monitoring. We develop a method combining computations of Cu partitioning coefficients between solid and solution phases with runoff data. The surfaces with potential for export or accumulation are roughly constant over the century, but the accumulation potential of Cu increases while leaching potential decreases for 2000–2095.
Nina Raoult, Louis-Axel Edouard-Rambaut, Nicolas Vuichard, Vladislav Bastrikov, Anne Sofie Lansø, Bertrand Guenet, and Philippe Peylin
Biogeosciences, 21, 1017–1036, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1017-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1017-2024, 2024
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Observations are used to reduce uncertainty in land surface models (LSMs) by optimising poorly constraining parameters. However, optimising against current conditions does not necessarily ensure that the parameters treated as invariant will be robust in a changing climate. Manipulation experiments offer us a unique chance to optimise our models under different (here atmospheric CO2) conditions. By using these data in optimisations, we gain confidence in the future projections of LSMs.
Bertrand Guenet, Jérémie Orliac, Lauric Cécillon, Olivier Torres, Laura Sereni, Philip A. Martin, Pierre Barré, and Laurent Bopp
Biogeosciences, 21, 657–669, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-657-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-657-2024, 2024
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Heterotrophic respiration fluxes are a major flux between surfaces and the atmosphere, but Earth system models do not yet represent them correctly. Here we benchmarked Earth system models against observation-based products, and we identified the important mechanisms that need to be improved in the next-generation Earth system models.
Jan De Pue, Sebastian Wieneke, Ana Bastos, José Miguel Barrios, Liyang Liu, Philippe Ciais, Alirio Arboleda, Rafiq Hamdi, Maral Maleki, Fabienne Maignan, Françoise Gellens-Meulenberghs, Ivan Janssens, and Manuela Balzarolo
Biogeosciences, 20, 4795–4818, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4795-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4795-2023, 2023
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The gross primary production (GPP) of the terrestrial biosphere is a key source of variability in the global carbon cycle. To estimate this flux, models can rely on remote sensing data (RS-driven), meteorological data (meteo-driven) or a combination of both (hybrid). An intercomparison of 11 models demonstrated that RS-driven models lack the sensitivity to short-term anomalies. Conversely, the simulation of soil moisture dynamics and stress response remains a challenge in meteo-driven models.
Juan Pablo Almeida, Lorenzo Menichetti, Alf Ekblad, Nicholas P. Rosenstock, and Håkan Wallander
Biogeosciences, 20, 1443–1458, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1443-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1443-2023, 2023
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In forests, trees allocate a significant amount of carbon belowground to support mycorrhizal symbiosis. In northern forests nitrogen normally regulates this allocation and consequently mycorrhizal fungi growth. In this study we demonstrate that in a conifer forest from Sweden, fungal growth is regulated by phosphorus instead of nitrogen. This is probably due to an increase in nitrogen deposition to soils caused by decades of human pollution that has altered the ecosystem nutrient regime.
Tino Peplau, Christopher Poeplau, Edward Gregorich, and Julia Schroeder
Biogeosciences, 20, 1063–1074, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1063-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1063-2023, 2023
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We buried tea bags and temperature loggers in a paired-plot design in soils under forest and agricultural land and retrieved them after 2 years to quantify the effect of land-use change on soil temperature and litter decomposition in subarctic agricultural systems. We could show that agricultural soils were on average 2 °C warmer than forests and that litter decomposition was enhanced. The results imply that deforestation amplifies effects of climate change on soil organic matter dynamics.
Ruud Rijkers, Mark Dekker, Rien Aerts, and James T. Weedon
Biogeosciences, 20, 767–780, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-767-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-767-2023, 2023
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Bacterial communities in the soils of the Arctic region decompose soil organic matter to CO2 from a large carbon pool. The amount of CO2 released is likely to increase under future climate conditions. Here, we study how temperature sensitive the growth of soil bacterial communties is for 12 sampling sites in the sub to high Arctic. We show that the optimal growth temperature varies between 23 and 34 °C and is influenced by the summer temperature.
Arthur Nicolaus Fendrich, Philippe Ciais, Emanuele Lugato, Marco Carozzi, Bertrand Guenet, Pasquale Borrelli, Victoria Naipal, Matthew McGrath, Philippe Martin, and Panos Panagos
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 7835–7857, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-7835-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-7835-2022, 2022
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Currently, spatially explicit models for soil carbon stock can simulate the impacts of several changes. However, they do not incorporate the erosion, lateral transport, and deposition (ETD) of soil material. The present work developed ETD formulation, illustrated model calibration and validation for Europe, and presented the results for a depositional site. We expect that our work advances ETD models' description and facilitates their reproduction and incorporation in land surface models.
Brendan Byrne, Junjie Liu, Yonghong Yi, Abhishek Chatterjee, Sourish Basu, Rui Cheng, Russell Doughty, Frédéric Chevallier, Kevin W. Bowman, Nicholas C. Parazoo, David Crisp, Xing Li, Jingfeng Xiao, Stephen Sitch, Bertrand Guenet, Feng Deng, Matthew S. Johnson, Sajeev Philip, Patrick C. McGuire, and Charles E. Miller
Biogeosciences, 19, 4779–4799, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4779-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4779-2022, 2022
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Plants draw CO2 from the atmosphere during the growing season, while respiration releases CO2 to the atmosphere throughout the year, driving seasonal variations in atmospheric CO2 that can be observed by satellites, such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 (OCO-2). Using OCO-2 XCO2 data and space-based constraints on plant growth, we show that permafrost-rich northeast Eurasia has a strong seasonal release of CO2 during the autumn, hinting at an unexpectedly large respiration signal from soils.
Wen Wen, Joris Timmermans, Qi Chen, and Peter M. van Bodegom
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 4537–4552, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-4537-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-4537-2022, 2022
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A novel approach for evaluating individual and combined impacts of drought and salinity in real-life settings is proposed using Sentinel-2. We found that crop responses to drought and salinity differ between growth stages. Compared to salinity, crop growth is most strongly affected by drought stress and is, in general, further exacerbated when co-occurring with salinity stress. Our approach facilitates a way to monitor crop health under multiple stresses with potential large-scale applications.
Xin Yu, René Orth, Markus Reichstein, Michael Bahn, Anne Klosterhalfen, Alexander Knohl, Franziska Koebsch, Mirco Migliavacca, Martina Mund, Jacob A. Nelson, Benjamin D. Stocker, Sophia Walther, and Ana Bastos
Biogeosciences, 19, 4315–4329, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4315-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4315-2022, 2022
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Identifying drought legacy effects is challenging because they are superimposed on variability driven by climate conditions in the recovery period. We develop a residual-based approach to quantify legacies on gross primary productivity (GPP) from eddy covariance data. The GPP reduction due to legacy effects is comparable to the concurrent effects at two sites in Germany, which reveals the importance of legacy effects. Our novel methodology can be used to quantify drought legacies elsewhere.
Juri Palmtag, Jaroslav Obu, Peter Kuhry, Andreas Richter, Matthias B. Siewert, Niels Weiss, Sebastian Westermann, and Gustaf Hugelius
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 4095–4110, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4095-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4095-2022, 2022
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The northern permafrost region covers 22 % of the Northern Hemisphere and holds almost twice as much carbon as the atmosphere. This paper presents data from 651 soil pedons encompassing more than 6500 samples from 16 different study areas across the northern permafrost region. We use this dataset together with ESA's global land cover dataset to estimate soil organic carbon and total nitrogen storage up to 300 cm soil depth, with estimated values of 813 Pg for carbon and 55 Pg for nitrogen.
Juan Pablo Almeida, Nicholas P. Rosenstock, Susanne K. Woche, Georg Guggenberger, and Håkan Wallander
Biogeosciences, 19, 3713–3726, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3713-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3713-2022, 2022
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Fungi living in symbiosis with tree roots can accumulate belowground, forming special tissues than can repel water. We measured the water repellency of organic material incubated belowground and correlated it with fungal growth. We found a positive association between water repellency and root symbiotic fungi. These results are important because an increase in soil water repellency can reduce the release of CO2 from soils into the atmosphere and mitigate the effects of greenhouse gasses.
Haicheng Zhang, Ronny Lauerwald, Pierre Regnier, Philippe Ciais, Kristof Van Oost, Victoria Naipal, Bertrand Guenet, and Wenping Yuan
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 1119–1144, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1119-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1119-2022, 2022
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We present a land surface model which can simulate the complete lateral transfer of sediment and carbon from land to ocean through rivers. Our model captures the water, sediment, and organic carbon discharges in European rivers well. Application of our model in Europe indicates that lateral carbon transfer can strongly change regional land carbon budgets by affecting organic carbon distribution and soil moisture.
Niek Jesse Speetjens, George Tanski, Victoria Martin, Julia Wagner, Andreas Richter, Gustaf Hugelius, Chris Boucher, Rachele Lodi, Christian Knoblauch, Boris P. Koch, Urban Wünsch, Hugues Lantuit, and Jorien E. Vonk
Biogeosciences, 19, 3073–3097, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3073-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3073-2022, 2022
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Climate change and warming in the Arctic exceed global averages. As a result, permanently frozen soils (permafrost) which store vast quantities of carbon in the form of dead plant material (organic matter) are thawing. Our study shows that as permafrost landscapes degrade, high concentrations of organic matter are released. Partly, this organic matter is degraded rapidly upon release, while another significant fraction enters stream networks and enters the Arctic Ocean.
Laura Sereni, Bertrand Guenet, Charlotte Blasi, Olivier Crouzet, Jean-Christophe Lata, and Isabelle Lamy
Biogeosciences, 19, 2953–2968, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2953-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2953-2022, 2022
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This study focused on the modellisation of two important drivers of soil greenhouse gas emissions: soil contamination and soil moisture change. The aim was to include a Cu function in the soil biogeochemical model DNDC for different soil moisture conditions and then to estimate variation in N2O, NO2 or NOx emissions. Our results show a larger effect of Cu on N2 and N2O emissions than on the other nitrogen species and a higher effect for the soils incubated under constant constant moisture.
Melanie S. Verlinden, Hamada AbdElgawad, Arne Ven, Lore T. Verryckt, Sebastian Wieneke, Ivan A. Janssens, and Sara Vicca
Biogeosciences, 19, 2353–2364, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2353-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2353-2022, 2022
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Zea mays grows in mesocosms with different soil nutrition levels. At low phosphorus (P) availability, leaf physiological activity initially decreased strongly. P stress decreased over the season. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) symbiosis increased over the season. AMF symbiosis is most likely responsible for gradual reduction in P stress.
Yuanyuan Luo, Olga Garmash, Haiyan Li, Frans Graeffe, Arnaud P. Praplan, Anssi Liikanen, Yanjun Zhang, Melissa Meder, Otso Peräkylä, Josep Peñuelas, Ana María Yáñez-Serrano, and Mikael Ehn
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 5619–5637, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-5619-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-5619-2022, 2022
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Diterpenes were only recently observed in the atmosphere, and little is known of their atmospheric fates. We explored the ozonolysis of the diterpene kaurene in a chamber, and we characterized the oxidation products for the first time using chemical ionization mass spectrometry. Our findings highlight similarities and differences between diterpenes and smaller terpenes during their atmospheric oxidation.
Elodie Salmon, Fabrice Jégou, Bertrand Guenet, Line Jourdain, Chunjing Qiu, Vladislav Bastrikov, Christophe Guimbaud, Dan Zhu, Philippe Ciais, Philippe Peylin, Sébastien Gogo, Fatima Laggoun-Défarge, Mika Aurela, M. Syndonia Bret-Harte, Jiquan Chen, Bogdan H. Chojnicki, Housen Chu, Colin W. Edgar, Eugenie S. Euskirchen, Lawrence B. Flanagan, Krzysztof Fortuniak, David Holl, Janina Klatt, Olaf Kolle, Natalia Kowalska, Lars Kutzbach, Annalea Lohila, Lutz Merbold, Włodzimierz Pawlak, Torsten Sachs, and Klaudia Ziemblińska
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 2813–2838, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-2813-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-2813-2022, 2022
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A methane model that features methane production and transport by plants, the ebullition process and diffusion in soil, oxidation to CO2, and CH4 fluxes to the atmosphere has been embedded in the ORCHIDEE-PEAT land surface model, which includes an explicit representation of northern peatlands. This model, ORCHIDEE-PCH4, was calibrated and evaluated on 14 peatland sites. Results show that the model is sensitive to temperature and substrate availability over the top 75 cm of soil depth.
Weilin Huang, Peter M. van Bodegom, Toni Viskari, Jari Liski, and Nadejda A. Soudzilovskaia
Biogeosciences, 19, 1469–1490, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1469-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1469-2022, 2022
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This work focuses on one of the essential pathways of mycorrhizal impact on C cycles: the mediation of plant litter decomposition. We present a model based on litter chemical quality which precludes a conclusive examination of mycorrhizal impacts on soil C. It improves long-term decomposition predictions and advances our understanding of litter decomposition dynamics. It creates a benchmark in quantitatively examining the impacts of plant–microbe interactions on soil C dynamics.
Céline Gommet, Ronny Lauerwald, Philippe Ciais, Bertrand Guenet, Haicheng Zhang, and Pierre Regnier
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 393–418, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-393-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-393-2022, 2022
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Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) leaching from soils into river networks is an important component of the land carbon (C) budget, but its spatiotemporal variation is not yet fully constrained. We use a land surface model to simulate the present-day land C budget at the European scale, including leaching of DOC from the soil. We found average leaching of 14.3 Tg C yr−1 (0.6 % of terrestrial net primary production) with seasonal variations. We determine runoff and temperature to be the main drivers.
Lore T. Verryckt, Sara Vicca, Leandro Van Langenhove, Clément Stahl, Dolores Asensio, Ifigenia Urbina, Romà Ogaya, Joan Llusià, Oriol Grau, Guille Peguero, Albert Gargallo-Garriga, Elodie A. Courtois, Olga Margalef, Miguel Portillo-Estrada, Philippe Ciais, Michael Obersteiner, Lucia Fuchslueger, Laynara F. Lugli, Pere-Roc Fernandez-Garberí, Helena Vallicrosa, Melanie Verlinden, Christian Ranits, Pieter Vermeir, Sabrina Coste, Erik Verbruggen, Laëtitia Bréchet, Jordi Sardans, Jérôme Chave, Josep Peñuelas, and Ivan A. Janssens
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 5–18, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5-2022, 2022
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We provide a comprehensive dataset of vertical profiles of photosynthesis and important leaf traits, including leaf N and P concentrations, from two 3-year, large-scale nutrient addition experiments conducted in two tropical rainforests in French Guiana. These data present a unique source of information to further improve model representations of the roles of N and P, and other leaf nutrients, in photosynthesis in tropical forests.
Cyrill U. Zosso, Nicholas O. E. Ofiti, Jennifer L. Soong, Emily F. Solly, Margaret S. Torn, Arnaud Huguet, Guido L. B. Wiesenberg, and Michael W. I. Schmidt
SOIL, 7, 477–494, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-477-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-477-2021, 2021
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How subsoil microorganisms respond to warming is largely unknown, despite their crucial role in the soil organic carbon cycle. We observed that the subsoil microbial community composition was more responsive to warming compared to the topsoil community composition. Decreased microbial abundance in subsoils, as observed in this study, might reduce the magnitude of the respiration response over time, and a shift in the microbial community will likely affect the cycling of soil organic carbon.
Kyle B. Delwiche, Sara Helen Knox, Avni Malhotra, Etienne Fluet-Chouinard, Gavin McNicol, Sarah Feron, Zutao Ouyang, Dario Papale, Carlo Trotta, Eleonora Canfora, You-Wei Cheah, Danielle Christianson, Ma. Carmelita R. Alberto, Pavel Alekseychik, Mika Aurela, Dennis Baldocchi, Sheel Bansal, David P. Billesbach, Gil Bohrer, Rosvel Bracho, Nina Buchmann, David I. Campbell, Gerardo Celis, Jiquan Chen, Weinan Chen, Housen Chu, Higo J. Dalmagro, Sigrid Dengel, Ankur R. Desai, Matteo Detto, Han Dolman, Elke Eichelmann, Eugenie Euskirchen, Daniela Famulari, Kathrin Fuchs, Mathias Goeckede, Sébastien Gogo, Mangaliso J. Gondwe, Jordan P. Goodrich, Pia Gottschalk, Scott L. Graham, Martin Heimann, Manuel Helbig, Carole Helfter, Kyle S. Hemes, Takashi Hirano, David Hollinger, Lukas Hörtnagl, Hiroki Iwata, Adrien Jacotot, Gerald Jurasinski, Minseok Kang, Kuno Kasak, John King, Janina Klatt, Franziska Koebsch, Ken W. Krauss, Derrick Y. F. Lai, Annalea Lohila, Ivan Mammarella, Luca Belelli Marchesini, Giovanni Manca, Jaclyn Hatala Matthes, Trofim Maximov, Lutz Merbold, Bhaskar Mitra, Timothy H. Morin, Eiko Nemitz, Mats B. Nilsson, Shuli Niu, Walter C. Oechel, Patricia Y. Oikawa, Keisuke Ono, Matthias Peichl, Olli Peltola, Michele L. Reba, Andrew D. Richardson, William Riley, Benjamin R. K. Runkle, Youngryel Ryu, Torsten Sachs, Ayaka Sakabe, Camilo Rey Sanchez, Edward A. Schuur, Karina V. R. Schäfer, Oliver Sonnentag, Jed P. Sparks, Ellen Stuart-Haëntjens, Cove Sturtevant, Ryan C. Sullivan, Daphne J. Szutu, Jonathan E. Thom, Margaret S. Torn, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Jessica Turner, Masahito Ueyama, Alex C. Valach, Rodrigo Vargas, Andrej Varlagin, Alma Vazquez-Lule, Joseph G. Verfaillie, Timo Vesala, George L. Vourlitis, Eric J. Ward, Christian Wille, Georg Wohlfahrt, Guan Xhuan Wong, Zhen Zhang, Donatella Zona, Lisamarie Windham-Myers, Benjamin Poulter, and Robert B. Jackson
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 3607–3689, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3607-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3607-2021, 2021
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Methane is an important greenhouse gas, yet we lack knowledge about its global emissions and drivers. We present FLUXNET-CH4, a new global collection of methane measurements and a critical resource for the research community. We use FLUXNET-CH4 data to quantify the seasonality of methane emissions from freshwater wetlands, finding that methane seasonality varies strongly with latitude. Our new database and analysis will improve wetland model accuracy and inform greenhouse gas budgets.
Elisa Bruni, Bertrand Guenet, Yuanyuan Huang, Hugues Clivot, Iñigo Virto, Roberta Farina, Thomas Kätterer, Philippe Ciais, Manuel Martin, and Claire Chenu
Biogeosciences, 18, 3981–4004, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-3981-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-3981-2021, 2021
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Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks is beneficial for climate change mitigation and food security. One way to enhance SOC stocks is to increase carbon input to the soil. We estimate the amount of carbon input required to reach a 4 % annual increase in SOC stocks in 14 long-term agricultural experiments around Europe. We found that annual carbon input should increase by 43 % under current temperature conditions, by 54 % for a 1 °C warming scenario and by 120 % for a 5 °C warming scenario.
Lauric Cécillon, François Baudin, Claire Chenu, Bent T. Christensen, Uwe Franko, Sabine Houot, Eva Kanari, Thomas Kätterer, Ines Merbach, Folkert van Oort, Christopher Poeplau, Juan Carlos Quezada, Florence Savignac, Laure N. Soucémarianadin, and Pierre Barré
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 3879–3898, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3879-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3879-2021, 2021
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Partitioning soil organic carbon (SOC) into fractions that are stable or active on a century scale is key for more accurate models of the carbon cycle. Here, we describe the second version of a machine-learning model, named PARTYsoc, which reliably predicts the proportion of the centennially stable SOC fraction at its northwestern European validation sites with Cambisols and Luvisols, the two dominant soil groups in this region, fostering modelling works of SOC dynamics.
Yan Sun, Daniel S. Goll, Jinfeng Chang, Philippe Ciais, Betrand Guenet, Julian Helfenstein, Yuanyuan Huang, Ronny Lauerwald, Fabienne Maignan, Victoria Naipal, Yilong Wang, Hui Yang, and Haicheng Zhang
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 1987–2010, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-1987-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-1987-2021, 2021
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We evaluated the performance of the nutrient-enabled version of the land surface model ORCHIDEE-CNP v1.2 against remote sensing, ground-based measurement networks and ecological databases. The simulated carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus fluxes among different spatial scales are generally in good agreement with data-driven estimates. However, the recent carbon sink in the Northern Hemisphere is substantially underestimated. Potential causes and model development priorities are discussed.
Alexander Kmoch, Arno Kanal, Alar Astover, Ain Kull, Holger Virro, Aveliina Helm, Meelis Pärtel, Ivika Ostonen, and Evelyn Uuemaa
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 83–97, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-83-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-83-2021, 2021
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The Soil Map of Estonia is the most detailed and information-rich dataset for soils in Estonia. But its information is not immediately usable for analyses or modelling. We derived parameters including soil layering, soil texture (clay, silt, and sand content), coarse fragments, and rock content and aggregated and predicted physical variables related to water and carbon cycles (bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, organic carbon content, available water capacity).
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Co-editor-in-chief
The authors adopted a new and attractive approach, based on the use of thermal springs appearing at different times, to study the short-term and long-term (> 50 years) effect of warming on the soil C stock under subarctic grasslands. This new approach allows to take a new look at the question of a positive feedback between temperature and soils that can amplify global warming. Indeed, most studies on this subject are based on warming experiments conducted over the short term (some years) or on questionable correlative approaches where the temperature co-varies with many other factors (e.g., study of soil C stocks along latitudinal temperature gradients). Their study challenges the current dominant view on the effect of warming on the dynamics of SOM. Indeed, results suggest that soil C losses in the subarctic grasslands studied cease after 5 years of warming. These observations corroborate those obtained in the rare ecosystem warming experiments maintained beyond 10 years. In addition, results suggest that the C stocks present in the deep soil horizons, where plant roots are not or hardly present, are not affected by warming. These unexpected discoveries, together with other recent observations, show the glaring lack of knowledge on the fundamental mechanisms of the effect of temperature on catalytic processes, which seriously compromises our ability to predict the soil-climate feedback.
The authors adopted a new and attractive approach, based on the use of thermal springs appearing...
Short summary
In subarctic grassland on a geothermal warming gradient, we found large reductions in topsoil carbon stocks, with carbon stocks linearly declining with warming intensity. Most importantly, however, we observed that soil carbon stocks stabilised within 5 years of warming and remained unaffected by warming thereafter, even after > 50 years of warming. Moreover, in contrast to the large topsoil carbon losses, subsoil carbon stocks remained unaffected after > 50 years of soil warming.
In subarctic grassland on a geothermal warming gradient, we found large reductions in topsoil...
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